ard silver; yet still there would be 43 per | in bullion or in coin, is a very narrow princent. difference between coined and uncoin- ciple; all the republics we know of, wisely ed silver; whereas there is but about 14 per think otherwise. It is an utter impossibility; cent. difference in gold. nor should it ever be aimed at; for gold and silver are as clearly a merchandise, as lead and tin; and consequently should have a perfect freedom and liberty,* coined and uncoined, to go and to come, pass and repass, from one country to another, in the general circulation and fluctuation of commerce, which will ever carry a general balance with it for we should as soon give our lead, our tin, or any other product of our land or industry to those who want them, without an equivalent in some shape or other, as we should gold or silver; which it would be absurd to imagine can ever be done by our nation, or by any nation upon earth. On this we shall observe that the course of trade, not to mention extraordinary accidents, will make one metal more in request at one time than another; and the legislature in no one particular country, can bias, or prescribe rules or laws to influence, such demand; which ever must depend on the great chain of things, in which all the operations of this world are linked. Freedom and security only are wanted in trade: nor does coin require more, if a just proportion in the metals be settled. 12. To return to gold: it is matter of surprise, that the division of the piece called a guinea, has not been made smaller than just one half, as it now is; that is into quarters, thirds, and two thirds. Hereby the want of silver coin might be greatly provided for; and those pieces, together with the light silver coin, which can only now remain with us, would sufficiently serve the uses in circulation. In Portugal, where almost all their coin is gold, there are divisions of the moedas, or 27 shilling pieces, into tenths, sixths, quarters, thirds, halves, and two thirds. Of the moeda and one third, or 36 shilling piece, into eights, quarters, and halves. 13. That to the lightness of the silver coin now remaining in Great Britain, we owe all the silver coin we now have, any person with weights and scales, may prove; as upwards of 70 shillings coined in the reign of king William, or dexterously counterfeited by false coiners, will scarce weigh 12 ounces, or a pound troy. 14. All the art of man can never hinder a constant exportation and importation of gold and silver, to make up for the different calls and balances that may happen in trade: for were silver to be coined as above, 65 shillings out of a pound troy weight of standard silver; if those 65 shillings would sell at a price that makes it worth while to melt or export them, they must and will be considered and used as merchandise and the same will hold as to gold. : Though the proportion of about 14 of pure silver, to one of pure gold, in neighbouring states be now fixed, in regard to their coin, and it is submitted such proportion should be attended to in this kingdom, yet that proportion may be subject to alteration for this plain reason, that should the silver mines produce a quantity of that metal so as to make it greatly abound more in proportion than it now does, and the gold mines produce no more than now they do, more silver must be requisite to purchase gold. 15. That the welfare of any state depends on its keeping all its gold and silver, either 16. From Spain and Portugal come the greatest part of gold and silver: and the Spanish court very wisely permits the exportation of it on paying a duty, as in great Britain lead and tin do, when exported; whereas heretofore, and as it still continues in Portugal, penal laws were enacted against the sending it out of the country. Surely princes by enacting such laws, could not think they had it in their power to decree and establish that their subjects, or themselves, should not give an equivalent for what was furnished to them! 17. It is not our intention to descend into, or to discuss minutely, particular notions or systems, such as " That silver, and not gold should be the standard money or coin." "That copper is an unfit material for money." And That paper circulating as, and called artificial money is detrimental.” Yet as these doctrines seem to proceed from considering bullion, and money, or coin, in a different light from what we apprehend and have laid down, we will observe, 18. That it matters not whether silver or gold be called standard money; but it seems most rational, that the most scarce, and precious metal, should be the unit or standard. 19. That as to copper, it is as fit for money or a counter, as gold and silver; provided it be coined of a proper weight and fineness: and just so much will be useful, as will serve to make up small parts in exchanges between man and man. 20. That as to paper money, it is far from being detrimental; on the contrary, it is highly profitable, as its quick passing between man *As a general principle this is unquestionably true; but it must be general, or every nation with whom or the principle immediately assumes an exceptionable character; and nations liable to be effected by it must provide means to counteract the effects of a sudden drain commerce is extensively carried on, must alike adopt it, of the usual circulating medium, because the absence of a great quantity of the medium alters the price of ex change, of labour, goods, wages, rents, and the relative exchange of current money, subsistence; and depreci ates all other property. kind, instead of telling over, or weighing metal in coin, or bullion, is a gain of what is most precious in life, which is time. And there is nothing clearer than that those who must be concerned in counting and weighing, being at liberty to employ themselves on other purposes, are an addition of hands in the community. The idea of the too great extension of credit, by the circulation of paper for money, is evidently as erroneous, as the doctrine of the non-exportation of gold and silver in bul eaten than of others, some being of lighter digestion than others. The difficulty lies, in finding out an exact measure; but eat for necessity, not pleasure; for lust knows not where necessity ends. Wouldst thou enjoy a long life, a healthy body, and a vigorous mind, and be acquainted also with the wonderful works of God, labour in the first place to bring thy appetite to reason. Rules for a Club formerly established in Philadelphia.* Previous question, to be answered at every meeting. HAVE you read over these queries this lion or coin: for were it not certain, that paper could command the equivalent of its agreed-for value; or that gold and silver in bullion or coin exported, would be returned in the course of trade in some other merchandise; neither paper would be used, or the metals ex-morning, in order to consider what you might ported. It is by means of the produce of the have to offer the Junto touching any one of land, and the happy situation of this island, them? viz. joined to the industry of its inhabitants, that those much adored metals, gold and silver, have been procured and so long as the sea does not overflow the land, and industry continues, so long will those metals not be wanting. And paper in the general chain of credit and commerce, is as useful as they are: since the issuers or coiners of that paper are understood to have some equivalent to answer for what the paper is valued at: and no metal or coin can do more than find its value. Moreover, as incontestable advantages of paper, we must add, that the charge of coining or making it, is by no means proportionate to that of coining of metals: nor is subject to waste by long use, or impaired by adulteration, sweating, or filing, as coins may. Rules of Health.-From Poor Richard's Almanac, 1742. EAT and drink such an exact quantity as the constitution of thy body allows of, in reference to the services of the mind. They that study much, ought not to eat so much as those that work hard, their digestion being not so good. The exact quantity and quality being found out, is to be kept to constantly. Excess in all other things whatever, as well as in meat and drink, is also to be avoided. Youth, age, and sick, require a different quantity. And so do those of contrary complexions; for that which is too much for a phlegmatic man, is not sufficient for a choleric. The measure of food ought to be (as much as possibly may be) exactly proportionable to the quality and condition of the stomach, because the stomach digests it. That quantity that is sufficient, the stomach can perfectly concoct and digest, and it sufficeth the due nourishment of the body. A greater quantity of some things may be 1. Have you met with any thing, in the author you last read, remarkable, or suitable to be communicated to the Junto? particularly in history, morality, poetry, physic, travels, mechanic arts, or other parts of knowledge? 2. What new story have you lately heard agreeable for telling in conversation? 3. Hath any citizen in your knowledge failed in his business lately, and what have you heard of the cause? 4. Have you lately heard of any citizen's thriving well, and by what means? 5. Have you lately heard how any present rich man, here or elsewhere, got his estate? 6. Do you know of a fellow-citizen, who has lately done a worthy action, deserving praise and imitation: or who has lately committed an error, proper for us to be warned against and avoid? 7. What unhappy effects of intemperance have you lately observed or heard? of imprudence? of passion? or of any other vice or folly? 8. What happy effects of temperance? of prudence? of moderation? or of any other virtue ? 9. Have you or any of your acquaintance been lately sick or wounded? If so, what remedies were used, and what were their effects? 10. Who do you know that are shortly going voyages or journies, if one should have occasion to send by them? 11. Do you think of any thing at present, in which the Junto may be serviceable to mankind? to their country, to their friends, or to themselves? *This was an early performance. The club held in Philadelphia, was composed of men considerable for their influence and discretion, the chief measures of Pennsylvania usually received their first formation in this club, it existed thirty years without the nature of its institution being publicly known. This club gave origin to the American Philosophical Society now es isting. 12. Hath any deserving stranger arrived in town since last meeting, that you heard of? and what have you heard or observed of his character or merits? and whether think you, it lies in the power of the Junto to oblige him, or encourage him as he deserves? 13. Do you know of any deserving young beginner lately set up, whom it lies in the power of the Junto any way to encourage? 14. Have you lately observed any defect in the laws of your country, of which it would be proper to move the legislature for an amendment? or do you know of any beneficial law that is wanting? 15. Have you lately observed any encroachment on the just liberties of the people? 16. Hath any body attacked your reputation lately? and what can the Junto do towards securing it? 17. Is there any man whose friendship you want, and which the Junto, or any of them, can procure for you? 18. Have you lately heard any member's character attacked, and how have you defended it? 19. Hath any man injured you, from whom it is in the power of the Junto to procure redress? 20. In what manner can the Junto or any of them, assist you in any of your honourable designs? 21. Have you any weighty affair in hand, in which you think the advice of the Junto may be of service? 22. What benefits have you lately received from any man not present? you 23. Is there any difficulty in matters of opinion, of justice, and injustice, which would gladly have discussed at this time? 24. Do you see any thing amiss in the present customs or proceedings of the Junto, which might be amended? Any person to be qualified, to stand up, and lay his hand on his breast, and be asked these questions, viz. 1. Have you any particular disrespect to any present members?-Answer. I have not. 2. Do you sincerely declare, that you love mankind in general; of what profession or religion soever?-Answer. I do. Is self-interest the rudder that steers mankind, the universal monarch to whom all are tributaries? Which is the best form of government, and what was that form which first prevailed among mankind? Can any one particular form of government suit all mankind? What is the reason that the tides rise higher in the Bay of Fundy, than the Bay of Delaware? Is the emission of paper-money safe? What is the reason that men of the greatest knowledge are not the most happy? How may the possessions of the Lakes be improved to our advantage? Why are tumultuous, uneasy sensations, united with our desires? Whether it ought to be the aim of philosophy to eradicate the passions? How may smoky chimneys be best cured? Why does the flame of a candle tend upwards in a spire? Which is least criminal, a bad action join. ed with a good intention, or a good action with a bad intention? Is it inconsistent with the principles of liberty in a free government, to punish a man as a libeller, when he speaks the truth? Sketch of an English School, for the consideration of the Trustees of the Philadelphia Academy. It is expected that every scholar, to be admitted into this school, be at least able to pronounce and divide the syllables in reading, and to write a legible hand. None to be received that are under years of age. First, or lowest Class. Let the first class learn the English grammar rules, and at the same time let particular care be taken to improve them in orthography. Perhaps the latter is best done by pairing the scholars: two of those nearest equal in their spelling to be put together. Let these strive for victory; each propounding ten words every day to the other to be spelled. He that spells truly most of the other's words is victor for that day; he that is victor most days in a month, to obtain a prize, a pretty neat book of some kind, useful in their future studies. This method fixes the attention of children extremely to the orthography of words, and 4. Do you love truth for truth's sake, and makes them good spellers very early. It is a will you endeavour impartially to find and re-shame for a man to be so ignorant of this litceive it yourself and communicate it to others?-Answer. Yes. 3. Do you think any person ought to be harmed in his body, name, or goods, for mere speculative opinions, or his external way of worship?-Answer. No. tle art, in his own language, as to be perpetually confounding words of like sound and different significations; the consciousness of which defect makes some men, otherwise of good learning and understanding, averse to writing even a common letter. Let the pieces read by the scholars in this class be short; such as Croxall's fables, and little stories. In giving the lesson, let it be The Second Class To be taught reading with attention, and with proper modulations of the voice, according to the sentiment and the subject. Some short pieces, not exceeding the length of a Spectator, to be given this class for lessons (and some of the easier Spectators would be suitable for the purpose). These lessons might be given every night as tasks; the scholars to study them against the morning. Let it then be required of them to give an account, first of the parts of speech, and construction of one or two sentences. This will oblige them to recur frequently to their grammar, and fix its principal rules in their memory. Next, of the intention of the writer, or the scope of the piece, the meaning of each sentence, and of every uncommon word. This would early acquaint them with the meaning and force of words, and give them that most necessary habit, of reading with attention. The master then to read the piece with the proper modulations of voice, due emphasis, and suitable action, where action is required: and put the youth on imitating his manner. Where the author has used an expression not the best, let it be pointed out; and let his beauties be particularly remarked to the youth. Let the lessons for reading be varied, that the youth may be made acquainted with good styles of all kinds, in prose and verse, and the proper manner of reading each kind -sometimes a well told story, a piece of a sermon, a general's speech to his soldiers, a speech in a tragedy, some part of a comedy, an ode, a satire, a letter, blank verse, Hudibrastic, heroic, &c. But let such lessons be chosen for reading, as contain some useful instruction, whereby the understanding or morals of the youth may at the same time be improved. It is required that they should first study and understand the lessons, before they are put upon reading them properly; to which end each boy should have an English dictionary, to help him over difficulties. When our boys read English to us, we are apt to imagine they understand what they read, because we do, and because it is their mother tongue. But they often read, as parrots speak, knowing little or nothing of the meaning. And it is impossible a reader should give the due modulation to his voice, and pronounce properly, unless his understanding goes before his tongue, and makes him master of the sentiment. Accustoming boys to read aloud what they do not first understand, is the cause of those even set tones so common among readers, which, when they have once got a habit of using, they find so difficult to correct: by which means, among fifty readers we scarcely find a good one. For want of good reading, pieces published with a view to influence the minds of men, for their own or the public benefit, lose half their force. Were there but one good reader in a neighbourhood, nation with the same advantages, and have a public orator might be heard throughout a the same effect upon his audience, as if they stood within the reach of his voice. The Third Class To be taught speaking proper and gracefully; which is near akin to good reading, and naturally follows it in the studies of youth. Let the scholars of this class begin with learning the elements of rhetoric from some short system, so as to be able to give an account of the most useful tropes and figures. Let all their bad habits of speaking, all offences against good grammar, all corrupt or foreign accents, and all improper phrases, be pointed out to him. Short speeches from the Roman, or other history, or from the legislative debates, might be got by heart, and delivered with the proper action, &c. Speeches and scenes in our best tragedies and comedies (avoiding every thing that could injure the morals of youth) might likewise be got by rote, and the boys exercised in delivering or acting them; great care being taken to form their manner after the truest models. For their farther improvement, and a little, to vary their studies, let them now begin to read history, after having got by heart a short table of the principal epochas in chronology. They may begin with Rollin's Ancient and Roman histories, and proceed at proper hours, as they go through the subsequent classes, with the best histories of our own nation and colonies. Let emulation be excited among the boys, by giving, weekly, little prizes, or other small encouragements to those, who are able to give the best account of what they have read, as to time, places, names of persons, &c. This will make them read with attention, and imprint the history well on their memories. In remarking on the history, the master will have fine opportunities of instil ling instruction of various kinds, and improv-| ing the morals, as well as the understandings, of youth. The natural and mechanic history, contained in the Spectacle de la Nature, might also be begun in this class, and continued through the subsequent classes, by other books of the same kind; for, next to the knowledge of duty, this kind of knowledge is certainly the most useful, as well as the most entertaining. The merchant may thereby be enabled better to understand many commodities in trade; the handicraftsman, to improve his business by new instruments, mixtures and materials; and frequently hints are given for new manufactures, or new methods of improving land, that may be set on foot greatly to the advantage of a country. The Fourth Class To be taught composition. Writing one's own language well, is the next necessary accomplishment after good speaking. It is the writing-master's business, to take care that the boys make fair characters, and place them straight and even in the lines: but to form their style, and even to take care that the stops and capitals are properly disposed, is the part of the English master. The boys should be taught to write letters to each other on any common occurrences, and on various subjects, imaginary business, &c. containing little stories, accounts of their late reading, what parts of authors please them, and why; letters of congratulation, of compliment, of request, of thanks, of recommendation, of admonition, of consolation, of expostulation, excuse, &c. In these, they should be taught to express themselves clearly, concisely, and naturally, without affected words or high-flown phrases. All their letters to pass through the master's hand, who is to point out the faults, advise the corrections, and commend what he finds right. Some of the best letters published in our own language, as sir William Temple's, those of Pope and his friends, and some others, might be set before the youth as models, their beauties pointed out and explained by the master, the letters themselves transcribed by the scholar. Dr. Johnson's Ethices Elementa, or First Principles of Morality, may now be read by the scholar, and explained by the master, to lay a solid foundation of virtue and piety in their minds. And as this class continues the reading of history, let them now, at proper hours, receive some farther instruction in chronology, and in that part of geography (from the mathematical master) which is necessary to understand the maps and globes. They should also be acquainted with the modern names of the places they find mentioned in ancient writers. The exercises of good reading, and proper speaking, still continued at suitable times. The Fifth Class. To improve the youth in composition, they may now, besides continuing to write letters, begin to write little essays in prose, and sometimes in verse; not to make them poets, but for this reason, that nothing acquaints a lad so speedily with variety of expression, as the necessity of finding such words and phrases as will suit the measure, sound and rhyme of verse, and at the same time well express the sentiment. These essays should all pass under the master's eye, who will point out their faults, and put the writer on correcting them. Where the judgment is not ripe enough for forming new essays, let the sentiments of a Spectator be given, and required to be clothed in the scholar's own words; or the circumstances of some good story, the scholar to find expression. Let them be put sometimes on abridging a paragraph of a diffuse author: sometimes on dilating or amplifying what is Wrote more closely. And now let Dr. Johnson's Noetica, or First Principles of Human Knowledge, containing a logic, or art of reasoning, &c. be read by the youth, and the difficulties, that may occur to them, be explained by the master. The reading of history, and the exercises of good reading and just speaking still continued. The Sixth Class. In this class, besides continuing the studies of the preceding in history, rhetoric, logic, moral and natural philosophy, the best English authors may be read and explained; as Tillotson, Milton, Locke, Addison, Pope, Swift, the higher papers in the Spectator and Guardian, the best translations of Homer, Virgil, and Horace, of Telemachus, Travels of Cyrus, &c. Once a year, let there be public exercises in the hall; the trustees and citizens present. Then let fine bound books be given as prizes to such boys, as distinguish themselves, and excel the others in any branch of learning, making three degrees of comparison: giving the best prize to him, that performs best; a less valuable one to him, that comes up next to the best, and another to the third. Commendations, encouragement, and advice to the rest; keeping up their hopes, that, by industry, they may excel another time. The names of those, that obtain the prize, to be yearly printed in a list. The hours of each day are to be divided and disposed in such a manner, as that some classes may be with the writing-master, improving their hands; others with the mathematical master, learning arithmetic, accounts, geography, use of the globes, drawing, mechanics, &c. while the rest are in the English school, under the English master's care. Thus instructed, youth will come out of this school fitted for learning any business, calling, or profession, except such wherein languages are required: and, though unac |