TRENCHES. The approach by parallels or trenches and blinds in sieges, has been uniformly called a modern invention, first used by Mahomet II. It is, however, not only mentioned by Cæsar in the siege of Marseilles; by Diodorus Siculus in that of Ægina; Livy, and others; but is represented in many places of the Trajan column and Severus's arch. Hurdles, fascines, &c. also occur 1.

WELLS. [Of the Classical, see p. 71.] The Anglo-Saxons had a wheel for drawing water from wells. They were common annexations to houses. Rings were fixed to the chains of wells. We find a beam on a pivot, with a weight at one end for raising water; wheels and coverings; a lever, the fulcrum of which was a kind of gallows over the well; two buckets, one at each end of a chain, adapted to a versatile engine, called volgolus; buckets with iron-hoops; and drawing water from deep wells imposed as a punishment 2.

WHITE-HORSE. The celebrated one in Berkshire, from which the district bears the name of Vale of White Horse, has been generally considered as a memorial of the victory gained on that spot by Alfred against the Danes in 871. Mr. Wise doubts if the White-horse at Bratton, Wilts, (shewn in the Plate of Camps, p. 499, fig. 8,) can boast of the same relation, or the same claim to antiquity 3. From the horse upon British coins, Mr. Lysons questioned the appropriation 4. However, a Saxon camp is said to be adjacent 5.

1 Enc. M. Paris, 982 Wilts, i. 54.

Du Cange, v. Malha, Tollenum, Carrellus, Furcæ putei, Volgolus, Urnatores, Ferrata.
Lye, v. Hlæd-weogl.
Further Observations on White-horse, p. 48. Hoare's Anc.
Lysons's Brit. i. 215, 391.
5 Archæol. xii. 397.

ADE

An Anglo-Saxon Feast; see pp. 526, 534.

CHAPTER XII.

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF PRIVATE LIFE AMONG THE LAITY.

ALMS. When our Anglo-Saxon Kings dined, the poor sat in the streets, expecting the broken meat, &c. which was collected by the almoner: a custom obtaining also in other countries. Edward I. relieved 666 every Sunday, besides many on Saints' days; and thirteen, from Christ and the Apostles, was a favourite number for relief at one time, or placing in alms-houses. Of Alms-bread before (CHAP. X. p. 364). Almshouses are the Gerontocomia of Justinian, &c. of which Du Cange gives an account in his "Constantinopolis Christiana." In subsequent æras they were generally built at the doors of churches; sometimes at an abbey gate; possibly to keep mean persons from the table of the monks. About 1563 the pensionaries were obliged to attend Divine service, which probably had grown lax after the Reformation. Of Alms-houses originating as asylums for old servants elsewhere 1.

ANGLO-SAXONS2. Their earliest years were under the care of nurses, and they were baptized by immersion (see before, p. 104). Names were imposed, and the cradle was used. Children were, however, sometimes exposed. Infancy ended with the eighth year. Their childish occupations were leaping, running, and wrestling. Very few could read. At fourteen they prepared for arms, and daughters could marry. The period between this and manhood they called cniht-hade, i. e. knighthood; and in this stage they strove to excel each other in horse-racing. They ate beef, mutton, especially pork (swine being kept in large numbers, through the immense quantity of wood), and various fish, especially eels (see FISH, CHAP. X. p. 393); wheat, particularly barley, threshed with a flail, and ground in querns or handmills (see QUERNS, CHAP. IX. p. 308). They used warm bread, cultivated orchards, had figs, nuts, almonds, pears, apples, perhaps butter-milk, or whey (lac acidum), other milk, honey, peppered

'Dec. Scriptor. 786. XV. Script. 231. Du Cange, v. Matricula, Relevatrum. Angl. Sacr. i. 41; ii. 484. Lib. Garderob. p. 16. Grose, i. 15. Dyde's Tewkesbury, 86. Izacke's Exeter, 132. 2 As the Universal History contains a general view of the Manners and Customs of all Nations, it is not deemed necessary to give those unconnected with our National Antiquities. The accounts here are of different construction.

broth, herbs, eggs, fish, cheese, butter, beans, &c. in winter. They chiefly fared on salt-meat. The ladies dined with them. They drank ale and mead, occasionally wine, and continued it till the evening; frequented ale-houses, baked, boiled, or broiled their food. They parted the women and men at table, as now, the men being uncovered, the women not; the table oblong, oval, &c. cloth, knife, spoon, bowl, dish, and bread upon it. (See the Head-piece to this Chapter, p. 525.) Their furniture was rich hangings, benches, seats, and their coverings rich foot-stools, very costly tables, even silver or gold candlesticks, of bone, &c. large and small, two being lighted at a time, as now. At their convivial meetings they all sang in turn. Their dancing is thought to have included much tumbling. They played at a game of hazard called Tofo, hunted and fowled with hawks, nets, gins, birdlime, whistling, bird-calls, and traps. A chimney, and the comfort of it, was unknown. Our common farmers live better as to conveniences than their thegns and knights'. Other particulars are given under articles too numerous to be specified.

ARMS, DAGGERING OF. Young men frequently punctured their arms with daggers, and mingling the blood with wine, drank it off to the health of their mistresses 2.

BEQUESTS. It was formerly usual to leave bequests for mending the roads. In 1304 we find a hundred pair of shoes bequeathed for the use of the poor 3.

BITING THE EARS, &c. To bite the ear was formerly an expression of endearment; to bite the thumb of a person of an insult 4.

BOAR'S HEAD. This was a favourite Christmas dish. In an old computus we have, "Payed for iii shetes thick grose paper, to decke the bore's heade in Xmas xiid. More payd to Bushe of Bury, paynter, for the paynting the bore's heade with sondry colors iis." It was brought in, the trumpeters sounding before it, as was the boar in Petronius. Virgil mentions the present of a boar's head to a female 5. See Boar, CHAP. XVII.

BREAD AND SALT. It was the custom to swear by these, as the chief necessaries of life 6.

BREAKFAST. The Greek breakfast was a sop dipped in wine; the Roman, bread, dates, raisins, honey, or preserves; sometimes a crust. Martial says that the baker's cry of jentacula, or breakfast-cakes, was the signal for getting up; but that no person ate them except children, invalids, and effeminate people; indeed it appears that it was not a usual meal, and our ancestors often lay in bed till dinner-time, i. e. nine or

ten.

We find the hour seven, then eight, perhaps nine; the viands were bread and wine (fourteenth century), boiled beef, bread, beer, wine, salt fish, butter, sprats, herrings, brawn, mustard, malmsey. Edward IV. had loaves made into manchets, or rolls, almond-biscuits, kichin grosse and ale. Butter and eggs, or buttered eggs, but more commonly meat, occur in the time of Elizabeth, as do also a fine beaf-steak broiled with a cup of ale, at eight, or perhaps nine. [Of Bread and Butter before, CHAP. X. p. 364.] Among rusticks it was of bread and cheese, as now. The monks took mixtum, i. e. bread and a little wine7.

BRITONS. See CELTs, p. 527 ; Gauls, p. 542; HIGHLANDERS, p. 547 ; IRISH, p.549; WELCH, p. 567. .

BROOMSTICK, JUMPING OVER, RIDING ON. 1. It was a superstition of the Romans not to step over brooms. Hence perhaps the irony of the phrase for an illicit connexion. 2. The riding of witches on broomsticks, supposed to be endowed with that power through being rubbed with a particular ointment, is seemingly derived, according to the Eddas and Keysler, from the messenger of Frigga, who had a horse which ran over the air and across the water 1.

BROOM AT THE MAST-HEAD. Of ships to be sold, from the old custom of putting up boughs upon a thing as an indication of its being for sale 2. See SLAVES, p. 563. CALVES HEADS. See DINNER, p. 532.

CANDLES-ENDS. Drinking them off was in the 16th century a piece of amorous gallantry 3.

CAT, KEEPING OF. See CAT, CHAP. XVII.

CELTS. Mr. Warner, in one of his Welch Tours, has proved from Strabo, &c. the identity of the Welch and Celts; and the following extracts from Pelloutier (Memoires de Celtes) are conformable to the trite accounts which we have of the Britons. He says, that the Celts had no fixed habitations (i. 144); that they drank beer (i. 125); that they kept their corn in caverns (i. 147); that they changed their residence every year (i. 147); that they had no gold nor silver (i. 173); that they knew not how to read, but learned hymns by art (L. ii. c. 7. 10.); that they sang and danced to musick (Id. c. 7.); that their exercises were entirely military (L. ii. c. 1. L. iv. vol. ii. 194.); that they held their meetings by moonlight (ii. 243); and had a very solemn annual meeting (Id. 195.) Their private life is given under GAULS, p. 542; and HIGHLANDERS, p. 547; IRISH, p. 549; Scors, p. 560; WELCH, p. 569.

CHAIRING. This was taken from the custom, usual in the Northern Nations, of elevating the King after his election, upon the shoulders of the Senators, The AngloSaxons carried their King upon a shield when crowned. The Danes set him upon a high stone, placed in the middle of twelve smaller. Bishops were chaired upon election, as were abbots and others 4.

CHEWING TOBACCO. Plutarch says, chewing of mallows is very wholesome, and the stalk of asphodel very luscious 5.

CHRISTMAS. See DECEMBER, CHAP. XIII.

CIRCUITS. Established in France in 853, in England in 11766.

CLOATHS, TURNING OF. To put the best side outermost was a proverb, taken from the Greeks, and originated in turning the side of a garment, which had been worn and was full of spots 7.

COMMUNITY OF WIVES. This old British practice prevailed in Ireland in the twelfth century. The lead-miners of Rhydfendigaid, in Cardiganshire, still partially retain it 8.

COMBING THE HAIR. Neglect of combing the hair was deemed by the Romans a mark of military bravery. Among us it was not usual every day till the Anglo-Norman times, the Danes excepted, who were great fops in this respect. Joinville mentions it as combed by boys and valets, and some persons enjoyed it as a luxury 9.

6

Plut. Rom. Quæst. Northern Antiq. Candle-ends. 4 North. Antiq. i. 170. viv. Sapient. Spelm. v. Iter. cholson's Cambr. Travell. 572. 9 Juv. L. VOL. II.

Popul. Antiq. ii. 373. 2 Id. ii. 247, 317.
XV. Scriptor. 57. Strutt's Horda, ii. 56.

3 Nares, v. s Plut. de con7 Theophr. p. 340. Ed. Casaub. 8 Dec. Scriptor. 1071. Niv. S. xiv. v. 195. Eadmer, 23. Joinville, i. 350. Froiss. v. 21.

G

CONCUBINE. The Vice-conjux of inscriptions; concubinage being anciently a kind of legal contract, inferior to that of marriage, in use when there was a considerable disparity between the parties, the Roman law not suffering a man to marry a woman greatly beneath him, but he was not to have a wife besides 1.

COSHERING. The Irish, from disdain of trade, lounged from house to house, with a greyhound, their constant attendant. This they called coshering. Spenser says, that they became, from contempt of labour, horse-boys or stocahs to some kern, inuring themselves to weapons. Some gentlemen's sons would gather three or four stragglers or kerns, and wander about the country. See DINNER, p. 534.

Coventry, sendiNG TO. The Greek and Roman mode was interdiction of supplying fire and water. Compulsory solitude also occurs in the Middle Age. The present phrase originated, according to Hutton, in the Birmingham people apprehending all messengers and suspected persons, and frequently attacking and reducing small parties of the Royalists, whom they sent prisoners to Coventry 3.

COUNCIL. The Roman Concilium was an assembly of the people, with exclusion of the Patricians.. The comitia, by tribes, were so called. 1. Privy Council. This is the consistorium of the Roman Emperors; the members of which were called Comites Consistoriani, and intituled viri spectabiles, implying the second order of nobility. Our nobles had also their privy. councils, composed of gentlemen of family and fortune, to whom regular summonses were sent in cases of emergency. Even abbots had them of monks. 2. Common Councils. Citizens have consulted by deputations or otherwise in all ages and places. We find a senate of thirty-six appointed at Exeter soon after the Conquest. 3. Ecclesiastical Councils. Borrowed from the Roman Courts, where doubtful matters were decided by aged and distinguished lawyers. 4. Councils of War. Common in all ages

4

COURT END OF THE TOWN. Suetonius mentions this distinction at Rome. The removal of our gentry to the suburbs was occasioned by houses in the City bringing a more profitable rent, through the increase of trade 5.

;

COURTESAN. To omit much matter from obvious motives is indispensable: to distinguish their figures in ancient marbles and paintings it is necessary to observe, that the Greek courtesans were distinguished from modest women by flowered robes; and at Rome they were forbidden the use of litters and the stola, reserved to Roman ladies. They assumed instead a sort of toga, worn so as to leave the shoulders and arms bare and in figures appear like Amazons, with one breast naked. They also affected yellow hair, and wore the tunick succinct (tucked up), omitting the vitta and flammeum. Among the Anglo-Saxons they sat at the door to lure passengers, according to one sense of port-quen, or haunted the towns or their gates. The Norman courtesans were very loose in dress and looks, and wore their hair floating behind their backs; but from that period even to 1661 their profession or disguise was that of laundresses, in which last time

2

Du Cange, v. Vice-conjux. Of the concubines of the clergy, see Mosheim, Cent. iii. p. ii. c. 3. § 6. p. 137, ed. 4to. Coll. Reb. Hyb. i. 110. Spens. View of Irel. 221. Aul. Cluent. Dec. Scriptor. 1064. Hutton's Birmingham, p. 41. Past. Lett. ii. 104; iv. 250. Barret's Bristol, 265. 1 Suet. Aug. i. State Trials, iv. 189, ed. fol.

prid. in Alex. Sever. Cent. V. p. 252.

Plut. in Marius. Cicer. pro Enc. Spart. in Adrian. LamIzacke's Exeter, p. 2. Mosheim,