people, and the simplicity of their habits, might have rendered practicable an accurate and complete analysis of their manners, of their origin, and their progress, the muse of history had not then descended. In the maturity of civil society, and especially in ancient kingdoms, the historian is baffled in his inquiries: he has to contend with the ever-changing tastes, appetites, and pursuits of millions, each individual varying from his companion,- each generation differing from the. past, and each race from the preceding. National manners, indeed, are no otherwise distinguishable from individual than as the mass differs from its elements; they are as a multitude of lines united into one cord; or as the Corinthian brass, each metal losing its separate identity, but contributing, in its degree, to the production of the general compound; or as the composite order in architecture, which is confined to none, but which combines the blended strength and beauty of all. The peculiarities of each individual are the small springs, which, when united, form the mighty river of society,-each tributary stream rolls its course unnoticed in the congregated waters, though each possesses its share in forming the accumulated ocean: some tainted rivulet, indeed, may flow conspicuous amidst the flood, or the foaming cataract may dash the still and stagnant lake from slumber into healthful activity.

Thus will it be in the manners of an extensive community. In proportion to the importance which rank or fashion, talent or circumstances, may give to an individual, will be the measure of his influence in forming, or directing, those ceremonies of behaviour, and that style of action, which constitute the external demeanour. A popular favourite may thus, in a short period, render, if he so choose, a large part of a nation respectable or ridiculous. Like another Lycurgus, he may impress upon them the sternest features of republican manners, or conduct them forth with the pomp and luxury of a Roman Emperor, to public shows and costly pageants. Like another Cromwell, he may stamp the national mind with the rigid character of his own plain and recluse habits; or, like Charles the Second, he may lead back his court, and all within his sphere, into the gayest profligacy, and the most dissipated manners.

Thus, it would appear, that manners are more dependent upon the influence of a single mind than any other department of a nation's character. The forms of government, and the systems of jurisprudence, are the result of the interests, the opinions, the feelings, and the will of larger bodies. These are institutions of a more important nature; they touch more upon the business of life, and come home to the bosom of man in a more imperious shape, and have a more

intimate relation with him. Manners are "the outward limbs and flourishes,"-they are not "the soul," nor the essential part, of human happiness. It naturally follows, that mankind, less interested in the consequences of these subordinate affairs, submit easily to take each change and fashion which caprice or ingenuity may invent: indeed, in these unimportant matters, perhaps, the more frequent the change, the better is it relished; the variety pleases, there is something new to learn,-to fill the "aching void," the listless. pauses, between one useless amusement and another. New forms and new ceremonies thus become the occasional business of the idle; and they who have nothing else to do, naturally set a high value on their chief occupations.

These transitions, though frequent, cannot very suddenly be adopted by the generality; and it thus always happens that the old modes for a long time retain their station, and, even at last, preserve some remnant of their character, amalgamated with the modern fashion.

Thus the accumulations of time roll on; and when we pause, at the end of centuries of refinement, it is a labour, beyond all the power of mortal, to unravel the complexity: and, perhaps, could we arrive at the truth, it would appear to many as more curious than useful. To the eye of some philosophers, these things may seem ridiculously insignificant; yet, in their place, they are of the first importance. In the estimation of those, who are happily removed from the sphere of such transactions, it may boot but little, how or why it has chanced, that in one place the toe of greatness is saluted, and in another the finger; or that in this region you bend the knee, and in that you prostrate the body. Yet philosophy may detect more or less of human abasement even amidst these ceremonious minutiæ, and as they prevail at the fountainhead of society, may infer that the same spirit will accompany the stream in all irrigations:

"These little things are great to little man.”

[This Paper is introductory to a series of Disquisitions on the same subject.]

DISCUSSION:

ON THE PROBABLE PERMANENCY OF MODERN CIVILIZATION.

THIS subject was discussed in the Institution during two successive meetings. The general opinion appeared to be, that the civilization of the modern world will be permanent; yet the contrary position was maintained by several of the

members. We are able to present only the following outline of the discussion.

It was contended, that there were very strong grounds for supposing that modern civilization would not only be permanent, but would increase. The world had, of late years, considerably improved, both in knowledge and virtue. Although in the dark ages, learning and civilization had changed its situation, it had never departed from the world, but in all its vicissitudes had progressively improved, from the earliest times. The world had been sunk in idolatry, but, by the genial influence of religion, idolatry had almost totally vanished. Although different countries had been conquered by barbarians, civilization had remained faithful to its ancient abode. The conquerors were improved by the vanquished. The Roman people were comparatively barbarous, at the time they conquered Greece; but, soon after, they arrived at a pitch of excellence, which had ever since been the admiration of the world. Who, in our day, can fear, that the civilized part of the world will be overrun by savage tyranny? Education is so general and extensive, books so widely circulated, and the powers of the human mind so great, strengthened as they have been by continual exercise, that did the disposition exist for such extermination, it would be impossible to effect it. The mind of man might for a time be depressed, but would never be destroyed. The pure and perfect system of religion, so generally prevalent in the present age, afforded a bulwark so strong, that the billows of ignorance and barbarity might beat against it without affecting, in the slightest degree, its foundation.

We had seen how much could be achieved by the exertions of a few enlightened and humane individuals, in the memorable abolishment of the slave-trade; and if a few could accomplish so much, what might not be expected to accrue from the collected labours of a society constantly and progressively improving. It was urged also, that mankind were less selfish than formerly,-that the great number of moral and religious institutions was a decisive proof of increasing benevolence, that the schools for the education of the poor, and the societies for the dissemination of religious knowledge, were striking evidences of a liberal spirit and of correct views, -that the diffusion over the whole world of the great principles of science, by the instrumentality of the press, was a sure presage of future and progressive improvement; and in proportion as the advantages which result from these measures become apparent, so will the system be extended wider and wider, until every inhabitant of the earth shall become not only a civilized, but a moral and intellectual being.

That consequently it was, to say the least, highly probable that modern civilization would be permanent. Nay, that the world would continue to go on, until the tide of improvement should be spread over every part of it, as the water covered the channels of the ocean.

Such were the reasonings adduced in favour of that view of the subject, which we must all ardently desire, if we do not very confidently expect to be realized.

In opposition to this it was contended, that there are no sufficient data in the condition of the modern world to justify an expectation that it will escape the degeneracy of past ages. That nations, like individuals, have their decline as well as their infancy and maturity; and the progress of society establishes the fact. The history of one nation is, indeed, in this respect, the history of all others. They begin in poverty-they are stimulated to industry-they acquire riches -they indulge in luxury and extravagance-they degenerate, and terminate where they commenced. Viewing the world at large, the condition of the human species undergoes change from age to age, but it does not aggregately improve. Comparing one era with another, and estimating the whole, there are now as many of the inhabitants in an unpolished state, as there were at any former period. Although some portions of Europe and America are now more cultivated than in ancient times, yet Africa and Asia, as well as other parts of Europe, are in an inferior state when compared with the splendour of many ancient countries, and the magnificence of many extensive cities. Witness Phoenicia and Egypt, Persepolis, Nineveh, and Babylon.

History informs us, that civilization commenced in the East. In that region it now appears to have declined; reposing for a time in Europe, its course seems now directed to the western world. Many ancient kingdoms, which formerly flourished in the South of the vast continent of America, are now no more. The principle of decay was alike prevalent there as it is in all other parts of the globe.

There may be exceptions, but it appears to be generally true, that where civilization has once declined, it never revives. We have not, at least, any instance of it in authentic history. Neither Egypt, nor Greece, nor Italy, has possessed a second era of prosperity. Western Europe is now the most civilized, and, for the first time. Not many centuries ago, it was in a state of the rudest barbarity.

There seems to be a point beyond which civilization cannot pass. When great elevation has been obtained by one age, it prevents further exertions of the same kind. Moral and intellectual qualities, like physical, decay when unexercised.

Oratory declined at Athens after Demosthenes, and at Rome after Cicero. Men love distinction, and when the ground is occupied, they give up the contest. Genius is indolent, and enthusiasm, unless excited, expires. Habitual ease is an inveterate barrier to all improvement.

There is nothing in soil, climate, or situation, that can stay the fluctuations of Civilization, or arrest her flight. She has inhabited and deserted all countries. Neither Islands nor Continents have stayed her progress. The plain, the hill, and valley, have alike been visited and left. Fertility and barrenness; heat and cold; have all been tried and all deserted. What new circumstances now exist that can reasonably be expected to vary the course which has hitherto always prevailed?

Although there is not the same class of barbarians to overrun Europe, as that by which the Roman empire was attacked, there are vast tribes included under the Russian dominion, and in other regions, sufficiently numerous to be formidable, and inhabiting a country sufficiently inferior to these cultivated regions, to render migration both desirable and tempting. Perhaps, the lower classes of society are more civilized and better educated than they were formerly; but the present century could not support a parallel with the last, on the greater number of those points, which distinguish a country in the summit of its greatness. It is probable, that the labouring classes, in the time of Augustus and Trojan, were less educated than in the time of a Commodus or a Basil; but who would insist, that civilization was at a greater pitch of excellence under the latter, than under the former, reigns? -Although the religion in the present age was a favourable circumstance, still it was no ground for supposing that the civilized parts of Europe would be freed from the fate of other countries, whose glories had long mouldered into dust. The Emperors of Constantinople, (Julian, the Apostate excepted) from Constantine, till the time when the city was taken by Mahomet the Second, were Christians, most of their subjects were Christians, and yet they were not exempted from the arm of the barbarians, or the ignorance of their conquerors. The bright constellations of genius and literature vanished from one hemisphere; the night of ignorance brooded upon all Europe; and the almost impenetrable darkness was only interrupted by the occasional meteors of Justinian,Belisarius, Narses,-which shot athwart the gloomy horizon. These things have been, and what guarantee have we that they will not recur again? That such a guarantee exists, has not yet been proved.

The question, intellectually considered, might be thus re