being the best but the only mode applicable to the teaching of dentistry. The success attained has, undoubtedly, had its influence in leading to its more general adoption, and has modified to some extent the teaching in medicine. The idea as then formulated was to teach on the living subject, and for the first time patients were invited to submit to the experimental work of students. It is remarkable that such an innovation should have ever found favor even with the class it was proposed to benefit. That this has been accomplished is evidenced by the fact that probably at least 22,000 patients have been treated in the three schools in Philadelphia the past winter. The estimate is based on the exact figures of this department for 1891-292, and does not include patients for the extraction of teeth. So much has this grown and so much has confidence been established that it has become a serious difficulty to confine it within proper limits.

The training of inexperienced students is necessarily perplexing. As they are not required to undergo preliminary practice with preceptors, it follows that the teaching of the elementary branches must be undertaken by this department. To accomplish this the first-year men are divided into sections under proper demonstrators, and are taught the principles of filling teeth out of the mouth before they are permitted to undertake the same operation on the living subject. The same plan is pursued in the mechanical work. This preliminary training establishes confidence sufficient, at least, for the minor operations. This preparatory term serves also an excellent purpose in giving confidence to the patient. From these small beginnings the student is led gradually step by step in his manual-training work, until he is ready to manage difficult cases and to assume the most serious responsibilities. Hence, when the dental student graduates he differs from some other professional men, in that he starts out fully equipped to meet all conditions, and has not to look forward with grave anxiety to his possible success in the cases that will daily occur in practice.

Though dentistry is still young as a profession it is divided into specialties. The prosthetic, or mechanical, is now followed by a number whose taste leads to that exclusively as a life work. The extraction of teeth has also become a specialty, largely due to the introduction of nitrous-oxide as an anesthetic. Continuous-gum, porcelain on platinum base, has its special workers, and more recently the so-called bridge work has its favorites who devote themselves almost exclusively to it. To teach these distinct specialties requires skilled assistants. This department has, fortunately, been able to secure the ability necessary from its own graduates, and the sections, therefore, have made most gratifying progress in these advanced mechanical studies, and has given them at the same time an ample field for the gratification of their individual tastes.

STATISTICS.

The number of matriculates from 1878-79 to 1891-92, 1,495; graduates from 1878-79 to 1891-292, 699.

These graduates were divided as follows: Alabama, 1; Australia, 4; Austria, 1; Bahamas, 2; Brazil, 15; Buenos Ayres, 1; California, 7; Canada, 12; Connecticut, 21; Colorado, 1; Chile, 1; Costa Rica, 2; Cuba, 25; Delaware, 6; Denmark, 1; District of Columbia, 4; Ecuador, 2; England, 11; Florida, 1; France, 3; Georgia, 3; Germany, 26; Guatemala, 1; Haiti, 2; Holland, 1; Illinois, 27; Indiana, 5; Iowa, 11; Ireland, 1; Italy, 2; Kansas, 2; Kentucky, 4; Louisiana, 2; Massachusetts, 31; Maryland, 3; Mexico, 2; Michigan, 3; Minnesota, 5; Mississippi, 1; Missouri, 2; Nebraska, 2; New Hampshire, 9; New Jersey, 13; New York, 68; New Zealand, 1; New Brunswick, 2; Nicaragua, 3; North Carolina, 3; Norway, 3; Nova Scotia, 5; Ohio, 16; Pennsylvania, 243; Puerto Rico, 2; Prince Edward Island, 3; Rhode Island, 4; Saxony, 1; Scotland, 8; South Carolina, 2; Sweden, 1; Switzerland, 12; Spain, 1; Tennessee, 1; Texas, 1; Turkey, 1; United States of Colombia, 5; Vermont, 3; Washington, 5; West Indies, 3; West Virginia, 2; Wisconsin, 18; Wyoming, 3.

Work in Operative Department.-The recording of daily work in the department was not attempted prior to the session of 1884-'85, hence the statistics apply only to the period since that time.

Gold used in filling. This record has only been kept since 1886. 1886-87, 50 ounces (4 pounds 2 ounces); 1887-88, 52 ounces (4 pounds 4 ounces); 1888-'89, 67 ounces (5 pounds 7 ounces); 1889-'90, 66 ounces (5 pounds 6 ounces); 1890-'91, 72 ounces (6 pounds); 1891-292, 69 ounces (5 pounds 9 ounces).

Special report on crown and bridge work.-This work was first placed under the care of a special demonstrator, Fred. A. Peeso, D. D. S., during the session of 1889-190. Whole number of teeth replaced, 292; gold crowns, 145; Logan crowns, 9; bridges, 33 (138 teeth); amount of gold used in the above, $504.52..

Bridge work is made exclusively on gold, using roots or teeth as piers, and extending the gold across, depending exclusively for strength upon the piers and the stiffness of the piece.

The first session of the three years' course decided upon opened 1891-292 with a freshman class of 62. This was an increase over the estimated number and amply justified the wisdom of the change as far as members were concerned. The present session (1892-'93) exhibits a still further increase to 70, with a combined class in first and second year of 145.

The completion of the organization of the third year (1893-'94) will doubtless increase the number to that secured under the rule of two years.

The results thus far attained have been gratifying as evidencing the fact that the adoption of a higher standard of training, if judiciously arranged, can not fail to be of advantage in every direction, and must encourage the belief that a still further advance may be possible.

Whatever the future may have in reserve the past is full of satisfaction that the University of Pennsylvania has fostered, in all its departments, a constant feeling that the present is but one step onward, and that others must be taken as the necessity seems to demand.

CHAPTER XII.

THE WHARTON SCHOOL OF FINANCE AND ECONOMY.

In the inaugural address of Provost William Pepper, February 22, 1881, it was announced that a School of Finance and Economy in the University of Pennsylvania had been projected by Mr. Joseph Wharton, of Philadelphia. At the meeting of the board of trustees, March 1, 1881, Mr. Wharton's plan for such a school was formally accepted, subject to conditions named by the founder of the school. He is a native Philadelphian of large wealth and general culture and an active, successful manufacturer, interested in public affairs. His views on subjects of importance in economic science are known by several monographs. Feeling dissatisfied with the results of the instruction in practical affairs given in American colleges, his first thought was to establish a chair of political economy. This idea was elaborated by him in the School of Finance and Economy. Mr. Wharton's project declares that the School of Finance and Economy should bear a family name honorable since the foundation of the city of Philadelphia, and the purpose of the school is

To provide for young men special means of training and of accurate instruction in the knowledge and in the arts of modern finance and economy, both public and private, in order that, being well-informed and free from delusions upon these important subjects, they may either serve the community skillfully as well as faithfully in offices of trust, or, remaining in private life, may prudently manage their own affairs and aid in maintaining sound financial morality-in short, to establish means for imparting a liberal education in all matters concerning finance and economy.

In the organization of the school provision is made for instruction in accounting or book-keeping in all its varied forms for private individuals and commercial and banking firms, manufacturing establishments, and banks; also in the modes of keeping accounts by executors, trustees, and assignees, by the officials of towns and cities, and by the several departments of the State or General Government. The meaning, history, and functions of money and currency were to be taught, "showing particularly the necessity of permanent uniformity or integrity in the coin unit, upon which the money system of the nation is based; how an essential attribute of money is that it should be hard to get; the nature of and the reasons for interest or hire of money and rents; the advantages of an adequate precious-metal fund for settling international balances, as well as for regulating and checking by redemption the paper money and credits of a modern commer

cial nation; how such metallic hordes are amassed and defended; the extent to which paper money may be advantageously employed; the distinction between bank notes and Government notes; the uses and abuses of credit, both private and public; the uses and abuses of bills of exchange, letters of credit, and promissory notes; the history of banking, and particularly of Government banks; the advantages and dangers of banks of issue, banks of deposit, and savings banks; how the functions of different sorts of banks may be combined in one, and how any of them may be banks of discount; the functions of clearing houses; the phenomena and causes of panics and money crises; the nature of pawn establishments and of lotteries, and the nature of stocks and bonds, with the ordinary modes of dealing therein."

The history and practice of modern taxation, as distinguished from the plunder, tribute or personal service, which it for the most part replaces, is a subject for study, including "the proper objects and rates of taxation for municipal, State or national purposes; the public ends for which money may be properly raised by taxation; the nature of direct and indirect taxation, of excise, of customs or import duties, of export duties, of stamps, of income tax; the modern methods by which taxes are usually levied; the influence exercised upon the morality and prosperity of a community or nation by the various modes and extents of taxation; the effects upon taxation of wars and of standing armies; the extent to which corporations should be encouraged by the State, and to what extent they should be taxed as compared with individuals engaged in similar pursuits."

It should be the duty of a professor to "teach how industries advance in excellence or decline and shift from place to place; how by intelligent industry nations or communities thrive; how by superior skill and diligence some nations grow rich and powerful, and how by idleness or ill-directed industry others become rude and poor; how a great nation should be, as far as possible, self-sufficient, maintaining a proper balance between agriculture, mining, and manufactures, and supplying its own wants; how mutual advantage results from the reciprocal exchange of commodities natural to one land for the diverse commodities natural to another; also the nature and origin of money wages; the necessity for modern industry of organizing under single leaders and employers great amounts of capital and great numbers of laborers, and of maintaining discipline among the latter; the proper division of the fruits of organized labor between capitalist, leader, and workman; the nature and prevention of 'strikes'; the importance of educating men to combine their energies for the accomplishment of any desirable object, and the principles upon which such combinations should be effected."

A professor or instructor upon elementary and mercantile law should teach the Constitution of the United States and of Pennsylvania; the principal features of United States law concerning mercantile affairs, 1180-21