widely diffused race called the Leleges; and, by gradual | Geoffroy called it the bat tick, and Latreille formerly placed intermixture with Hellenic (Greek) stock, became, to a cer- it in his genus Sarcoptes, now abandoned. Baron de Geer tain extent, a Greek people. In the course of time they has given a good description of it with figures. (Tom. vii. formed a kind of union and civil polity, which Aristotle Tab. 6.) thought worth describing; but his work is lost.-[See ETOLIANS.] We have hardly attempted any description of the interior of this country, because it is next to impossible to state anything about it that is either very precise or important. In its present wretched condition, it is very thinly inhabited, and very little cultivated. There can be no doubt that it contains a considerable portion of good soil; and we have lately been informed, on trustworthy evidence, that among its mineral treasures are sulphur and coal. There are several lakes in Acarnania. Bordering on Acarnania, on the north-east, was the small territory of Amphilochia, which, with its capital Argos, was sometimes reckoned a part of Acarnania, owing to the political connexion between the two people. It lay on the southeast and eastern coast of the Ambraciot Gulf; and its eastern boundary may have been the Achelous, or rather the mountain chain, which here forms the western margin of the basin of that river. Tradition named Amphilochus, the son of Amphiaraus, as the founder of the state of Amphilochia, and of its capital Argos, after his return from the war of Troy. [See ARGOS.] Amphilochia, together with Acarnania, became part of the Roman province of Epirus.-[See ACTIUM.] A'CARUS. The mite, a genus of insects belonging to the ACARIDES, under which Linnæus comprehended a great number of rather heterogeneous species. M. Latreille (Règne Animal, edit. 1829) confines the generic name to the species which have the feelers (palpi) forked, very short or concealed, the body very soft, or without a scaly crust. The feet have, at their extremity, a vesicular cushion. Among these species are enumerated the following: The domestic mite (Acarus domesticus, DE GEER), is very commonly found in collections of insects and stuffed birds, and is exceedingly destructive to cabinets. The effluvia of camphor has some effect in destroying this pest, but is not powerful enough to prevent it altogether. Moistening the specimens with a weak solution of corrosive sublimate, is said to prove an effectual preventive. The itch mite (Acarus Scabiei, FABRICIUS) is a microscopic animal, found under the human skin in the pustules ACCELERATED MOTION, ACCELERATING FORCE, ACCELERATION. When the velocity of a moving body is continually increased, so that the lengths described in successive equal portions of time are greater and greater, the motion is said to be accelerated, which is the same thing as saying that the velocity continually increases. [See VELOCITY.] We see instances of this in the fall of a stone to the earth, in the motion of a comet or planet as it approaches the sun, and also in the ebb of the tide. As it is certain that matter, if left to itself, would neither accelerate nor retard any motion impressed upon it, we must look for the cause of acceleration in something external to matter. This cause is called the accelerating force, see INERTIA, FORCE, CAUSE, to the remarks in the last of which articles we particularly refer the reader, both now and whenever the word cause is mentioned. At present the only accelerating forces which we will consider, are the action of the earth, and the various weights produced by it. It is observed, that when a body falls to the ground from a height above it, the motion is uniformly accelerated; that is, whatever velocity it moyes with at the end of the first second, it has half as much again at the end of a second and a half; twice as much at the end of two seconds; and so on. At least this is so nearly true, that any small departure from it may be attributed entirely to the resistance of the air, which we know from experience must produce some such effect. And this is the same with every body, whatever may be the substance of which it is composed, as is proved by the wellknown experiment of the guinea and the feather, which fall to the bottom of an exhausted receiver in the same time. The velocity thus acquired in one second is called the measure of the accelerating force. On the earth it is about 32 feet 2 inches per second. If we could take the same body to the surface of another planet, and if we found that it there acquired 40 feet of velocity in the first second, we should say that the accelerating force of the earth was to that of the planet in the proportion of 32 to 40. By saying that the velocity is 32 feet at the end of the first second, we do not mean that the body falls through 32 feet in that second, but only that if the cause of acceleration were suddenly to cease at the end of one second, the body would continue moving at that rate. In truth, it falls through only half that length, or 16, in the first second. It may be proved mathematically, that if a body, setting out from a state of rest, has its velocity uniformly accelerated, it will, at the end of any time, have gone only half the length which it would have gone through, had it moved, from the beginning of the time, with the velocity which it has acquired at the end of it. Thus, if a body has been falling from a state of rest during ten seconds, (the resistance of the air having been removed,) it will then have a velocity of 32 x 10 or 321 feet per second. Had it moved through the whole ten seconds with this velocity, it would have passed over 321 × 10 or 3216 feet. It really has described only the half, or 16081 feet. We may give an idea of the way in which this proposition is established, as follows:-The area of a rectfeet it contains, is found by multiplying together the numangle [See RECTANGLE], that is, the number of square of a well-known cutaneous disease. By some persons the insect is believed to be the cause of the disease, though many authors think otherwise. Bonelli, however, (Observations, p. 67) and Dr. Galet (Dissertation, ou Thèse inau-bers of linear feet in the sides. Thus, if AB be 4 feet, gurale), have found the animal in the pustules under the skin,-have observed it multiply, and infer, that if it does not produce, it accompanies the disorder. The descriptions and figures which they have given prove these facts beyond question. The sparrow mite (Acarus passerinus, FABRICIUS) is distinguished by the remarkable size of its third pair of legs. and AC 5 feet, the number of square feet in the area is 4X 5, or 20. Again, the number of feet described by a body moving with a uniform velocity, for a certain number of seconds, is found by multiplying the number of seconds by the number of feet per second, or the velocity. If, then, AB contain as many feet as there are seconds, and AC as many feet as the body moves through per second; as many feet as the body describes in its motion, so many square feet will there be in ABDC. That is, if we let AB represent the time of motion, and AC the velocity, the area ABDC will represent the length described in the time AB, with the velocity AC. Not that ABDC is the length described, or AB the time of describing it; but AB contains a foot for every second of the time, and ABDC contains a square foot for every foot of length described. Similarly, if at the end of the time just considered, the body suddenly receives an accession of velocity DF, making its whole velocity BF per second; and if with this increased velocity it move for a time which contains as many seconds as BE contains feet, the length described in this second portion of time will That is, since ANM is half of AP NM, and the latter contains a square foot for every foot of length which would have been described if M N had been the velocity from the beginning, we must infer that the length described by a uniformly accelerated motion from a state of rest, is half that which would have been described, if the body had had its last velocity from the beginning. If the body begins with some velocity, instead of being at rest, the space which it would have described from that velocity must be added to that which, by the last rule, it describes by the acceleration. Suppose that it sets out with a velocity of 10 feet per second, and moves for 3 seconds uniformly accelerated in such a manner as to gain 6 feet of velocity per second. Hence it will gain 18 feet of velocity, which, had it had at the beginning, would have moved it 27 feet. This is what it would have described had it had no through 18×3 or 54 feet of length, and the half of this is velocity at the beginning; but it has 10 feet of velocity per second, which, in 3 seconds, would move it through 30 feet. Hence 30 feet and 27 feet, or 57 feet, is the length really moved through in the 3 seconds. Similarly we can calculate the effects of a uniform retardation of velocity. This we can imagine to take place in the following way. While the body moves uniformly from left to right of the paper, let the paper itself move with a uniformly accelerated velocity from right to left of the table. Let the body at the beginning of the motion be at the left edge of the paper, and let that edge of the paper be placed on the middle line of the table. Let the body begin to move one-fourth of the velocity be communicated at the beginning of each of these times, so that the body sets off from A, with the velocity AC, which continues through the time represented by AB, and causes it to describe the length represented by ABDC. We know from geometry [See TRIANGLES, SIMILAR] that BD, EG, and HK, are respectively one-fourth, one-half, and three-quarters of MN, which is also evident to the eye, and may be further proved by drawing the figure correctly, which we recommend to such of our readers as do not understand geometry. Hence GE OF BF is the velocity with which the body starts at the end of the time AB; EI at the end of AE; and HQ at the end of AH. Consequently, the whole length described is a foot for every square foot contained in ABDC, EBFG, EIKH, and HQNM, put together. But this is not a uniformly accelerated velocity, for the body first moves through the time AB, with the velocity AC, and then suddenly receives the accession of velocity DF. But if, instead of dividing AM into four parts, we had divided it into four thousand parts, and supposed the body to receive one four-thousandth part of the velocity MN at the end of each of the parts of time, we should be so much nearer the idea of a uniformly accelerated velocity as this, that instead of moving through one-fourth of its time without acquiring more velocity, the body would only have moved one four thousandth part of the time unaccelerated. And the figure is the same with the exception of there being more rectangles on AM, and of less width. Still nearer should we be to the idea of a perfectly uniform acceleration if we divided A м into four million of parts, and so on. Here we observe, 1. that the triangle ANM is the half of APNM; 2. that the sum of the little rectangles ACDB, BFGE, is always greater than the triangle ANM, by the sum of the little triangles ACD, DFG, &c.; 3. that the sum of the last-named little triangles is only the half of the last rectangle HQN M, as is evident from the inspection of the dotted part of the figure. But by dividing AM into a sufficient number of parts, we can make the last rectangle HQNM as small as we please, consequently we can make the sum of the little triangles as small as we please, that is, we can make the sum of the rectangles AC DB, &c., as near as we please to the triangle A NM. But the more parts we divide A м into, the more nearly is the motion of the body uniformly accelerated; that is, the more nearly the motion is uniformly accelerated, the more nearly is ANM the representation of the space described. Hence we must infer (and there are in mathematics accurate methods of demonstrating it), that if the acceleration were really uniform, ANM would really have a square foot for every foot of length described by the body. C on the paper uniformly 10 inches per second, and let the paper, which at the beginning is at rest, be uniformly accelerated towards the left, so as to acquire 2 inches of velocity in every second. At the end of 3 seconds, the body will be at B, 30 inches from A, but the paper itself will then have acquired the velocity of 6 inches per second, and will have moved through the half of 18 inches or 9 inches; that is, AC will be 9 inches. Hence the distance of the body from the middle line will be CB, or 21 inches. Relatively to the paper, the velocity of the body is uniform, but relatively to the table, it has a uniformly retarded velocity. At the end of the fourth second, it will have advanced 40 inches on the paper, and the paper itself will have receded 16 inches, giving 24 inches for c B. At the end of the fifth second, AB will be 50 inches, AC 25 inches, and CB 25 inches. At the end of the sixth second, AB will be 60 inches, AC 36 inches, and B C 24 inches, so that the body, with respect to the table, stops in the sixth second, and then begins to move back again. We can easily find when this takes place, for, since the velocity on the paper is 10 inches per second, and that of the paper gains 2 inches in every second, at the end of the fifth second the body will cease' to move forward on the table. At the end of 10 seconds it will have returned to the middle line again, and afterwards will begin to move away from the middle line towards the left. At the end of the twelfth second, it will have advanced 120 inches on the paper, and the paper will have receded 144 inches, so that the body will be 24 inches on the left of the middle line. The general algebraical formulæ which represent these results are as follow. Let a be the velocity with which the body begins to move, t the number of seconds elapsed from the beginning of the motion, g the velocity acquired or lost during each second. Then the space described in a uniformly accelerated motion from rest is gt2; when the initial velocity is a, the space described in an accelerated motion is at+agt, and in a retarded motion the body will have moved through at-gt in the direction of its initial velocity if at be greater than gt, or will have come back and passed its first position on the other side by gt-at, if at be less thangt. In the last case it continues to move in the direction of its initial velocity for seconds and proceeds in that direction through the space a g g 2 manufactory seems to be weaker than that on the third syllable; so the last accent in immortalize, and that attached to the preposition on, among the six monosyllables, on the top of a hill, are comparatively very faint. The consideration of accent often determines whether or not we pronounce the initial h [See A or AN]; and, consequently, whether the article an or a is to be used before such a word. Upon accent depends the melody of verse, at least in modern For further explanation as to velocities which are accele-languages. Of the ancient, particularly the Greek accent, it rated or retarded, but not uniformly, see VELOCITY. ACCELERATION of the Moon's Mean Motion. See PLANE- ACCENT (in Mathematics). To avoid the confusion arising from the use of many letters in an algebraical problem, and on other accounts, it is customary to signify different magnitudes of the same kind, or magnitudes similarly connected with the question, by the same letter, distinguishing these magnitudes from one another by accents. It is, therefore, to be understood, that the same letter with two different accents, may stand for magnitudes as different in value as tnose represented by different letters. The convenience of the accent may be illustrated as follows. If a men can do b things in c days, and e men can do f things in g days, we have the following equation : afc = ebg. Now, instead of using e, f, and g, in the second part of the question, let us use the letters which stood for the corresponding quantities in the first part, with accents; that is, let a' men do b' things in e' days. The equation then becomes abc a' bc'. In this new form of the equation some things are evident to the eye, to ascertain which, had the first equation been used, we must have had recourse to the question itself. For instance, that if a", b", c' express men, things, and days, as above, ab" c = a"be", only placing two accents now where there was one before. In many investigations the judicious use of accents gives a symmetry to the processes and pressions which could scarcely be otherwise obtained. For the unmathematical reader, we may illustrate the use is better to abstain from speaking, because the opinions of ex-acute(), the grave (), and the circumflex (^). We have of accents in the following way. Let us suppose a bookcase The accented letter a' is read a accented, or a dashed; a" is read a twice accented, or a twice dashed, or more conve niently, though without much attention to idiom, a two dash, &c.; where accents become too many to be used with convenience, the Roman figures are substituted for them. Thus ar would be used for a"". The Roman figures prevent this being taken for a, or a multiplied three times by itself. The young algebraist should be cautious how he uses accents, until experience has taught him to do so with propriety. The accented letter is the metaphor of algebra; and expressions of the greatest symmetry may be deprived of all their beauty, and even much of their meaning, by a wrong use, or even a want of this notation. ACCENT. When a child begins to read, he is apt to pronounce all the syllables of a word in the same key, with the same loudness and clearness, dwelling the same time upon each, and pausing the same time between each pair. He soon, however, learns that, in nearly every word, there is one syllable at least which must be distinguished from the rest by a more impressive utterance, as in the examples respect, respectful, respectable. If the word is a long one, it requires a second accent, as respectability, manufactory, immortalize. On the other hand, when short words come together, one or two are often devoid of accent, as in the phrase on the top of a hill. When it is stated that the accented syllable is pronounced more impressively than the rest, it is not meant that all accented syllables are to be equally impressive. In the examples given above, the first accent in a speaker wishes to draw attention by giving it a more marked pronunciation. (See EMPHASIS.) emphasis, and is either grammatical or oratorical. ACCENT, in Music, signifies, in a general sense, indeed only just perceptible, given to notes which are in the Grammatical accent is the emphasis, always slight, and accented parts of a bar (see below), and may be thus exemplified : Again, an entirely different effect will be produced by throwing the accent on the first, third, fifth, &c., notes of the same series. Ex. Oratorical accent is expression-is the accent dictated by feeling-and not confined to any particular part of the bar. It often is required, though the composer may not have marked it by any sign, but left it to the knowledge and taste of the performer to discover and enforce. Commonly, however, the terms rinforzato (strengthened), and sforzato (violently forced), are used for the purpose, though these participles are too often thought synonymous. An acute angle (-) is also employed to indicate such emphasis. The annexed passage, from Mozart's Figaro, is an example of oratorical accent, the stress being laid on notes in both the unaccented and accented parts of the bar, the words 'Giusti Dei!' (Just Gods!) demanding strong expression: ac. un, un. a. u. u. a. u. u. a. u. u. a. u. u. a. In three-quaver time the accent is on the first quaver only. In six-quaver time, it is on the first and fourth quavers. Nine-quaver and twelve-quaver times, which are only multiples of the two former, follow the same rule as those. The extremes, however, of slowness and quickness in times, though not altering their names, change the number of accented parts. Thus, as we have before remarked, each bar of common time in an adagio (a very slow movement) has four accented parts; and when six-quaver time is very rapid, or presto, the first note in each bar is alone accented. The various times (as well as the many clefs) ought to be reduced in number, by which the laws of accent might be much simplified, and confined to two very plain rules. [See CLEF and TIME.] ACCEPTANCE. [See BILL OF EXCHANGE.] ACCESSARY (from the low Latin accessorius vel accessorium), is, in law, one who is guilty of a felonious offence, not as chief actor, but as a participator without being present at the time of the actual committing of the offence, as by command, advice, instigation, or concealment, &c. A man may be accessary either before the fact, or after it. An accessary before the fact is defined by Lord Hale to be one who, "being absent at the time of the crime committed, doth yet procure, counsel, or command another to commit a crime." The absence of the offender is necessary to constitute him an accessary, as otherwise he would be a principal; and ne must have procured the commission of the crime, either by direct personal communication with the actual perpetrator, or by conveying his advice or command through some indirect channel. But the mere concealment of a felony intended to be committed, without actual instigation, will not make a man an accessary; as that is only a misprision of felony. It is an established rule, that where a man commands another to commit an unlawful act, he is accessary not merely to the act commanded, but to all the consequences that may ensue upon it, except such as could not in any reasonable probability be anticipated or feared: as, for instance, if he commands another violently to beat a third person and he beats him so that he dies, the person giving the command is guilty as accessary to the murder consequent upon the act, notwithstanding that it may never have been his intention that a crime of so deep a dye should be committed. But a man will not be guilty as accessary before the fact if he command another to kill A, and he kills B, knowing that it was not A, because the particular crime he contemplated has never been completed. It is otherwise where the directions have been substantially pursued, although the crime may not have been committed precisely in the manner in which it was commanded to be done, as where a murder is effected by means of stabbing instead of poisoning. An accessary after the fact is one who, knowing that a man has committed a felony, receives, relieves, or assists him. In general, any assistance given to a felon to hinder his being apprehended, tried, or suffering punishment, as by affording him the means to escape the pursuit of justice, will constitute the assister an accessary after the fact; but it is not so if the assistance given have no such tendency, as when clothes or necessaries are supplied to a felon in gaol. Although any act done to enable the criminal to escape the vengeance of the law will make a man guilty as accessary after the fact, a mere omission to apprehend him, without giving positive assistance, will not have that effect. Also, if the crime be not completed, at the time of the relief or assistance afforded, the reliever or assister is not adjudged an accessary to it; as where a mortal wound has been given, but the murder is not then consummated by the death of the party: yet, the crime once complete, not even the nearest ties of blood can be pleaded in justification of concealment or relief, except alone in the case of a wife, whom the law supposes to be so much under the coercion of her husband, that she ought not to be considered as accessary to his crime, by receiving him after it has been committed. By the late statutes of 7 and 8 George IV., the punishment of accessaries before the fact is assimilated to that which is by law inflicted on the principal; and accessaries after the fact are made punishable with imprisonment proportioned to the heinousness of the original crime, but in no case is the imprisonment to exceed two years. The offence of receiving stolen goods is by those statutes specially provided for, and those who are convicted of it are made liable to fourteen years' transportation. Formerly no accessary could be tried until after the conviction of the principal, the crime of the former being regarded as, in a manner, dependent on that of the latter; but in the present day the law is greatly altered in this respect. It is now competent to try and convict him, either as accessary, or for a distinct substantive felony, without waiting for the conviction of the principal, who may not be within the reach of justice, or who may, perhaps, have been acquitted through accidental failure of evidence. It remains to be observed, that the distinction between principals and accessaries holds only in cases of felony. ACCIDENT, see PREDICABLES. ACCIPENSER, in Zoology, a genus of fishes. [See STURGEON.] ACCOLA'DE. This French word, derived from the Latin ad, to, and collum, the neck, signifies, in familiar speech, an embrace; and this idea, or that of union by means of the neck, as when two oxen are yoked together, is that which prevails in various other derivatives from the same root, both in the French and Italian languages. Some, accordingly, have supposed that, when used as descriptive of a certain part of the ancient ceremony of conferring knighthood, the particular act which it denoted was the embrace, accompanied with a kiss, which was bestowed upon the new-made knight, in token of the brotherhood established between them by his admission into the order of chivalry. It has, however, been the more generally-received opinion, that the accolade was what we call in English (though perhaps improperly) the dubbing, the slight blow given to the cheek or shoulder of the knight, as an emblem, to use the language of Gibbon, 'of the last VOL. I.-L affront which it was lawful for him to endure.' There is no doubt as to the great antiquity of this last-mentioned custom. Gregory of Tours, writing in the sixth century, describes the blow on the shoulder as part of the ceremony with which the kings of France, of the first race, were wont to confer the honour of knighthood. It has been derived, by some antiquaries, from the blow which the Roman slave received from his master when manumitted, or made a freeman. The blow of liberation, indeed, whatever may have been its original import, may be traced in various directions among the usages of the middle ages. In Germany, up to comparatively recent times, noblemen were wont to confer upon a slave the right of bearing arms by striking him. The act was called wehrhaft machen, that is, to make him capable of bearing arms. And in the same country it is still, in many places, the practice for the apprentice to receive a blow from the oldest journeyman when, by the termination of his apprenticeship, he becomes a freeman, and a member of the guild. The blow by which knighthood was conferred seems to have been originally given with the hand, for which the flat part of the sword was afterwards substituted. ACCOMPANIMENT, in Music, is the subordinate part, or parts, accompanying a voice, or several voices, or a principal instrument, &c. The piano-forte or guitar part of a song is the accompaniment, the air itself being the principal, the other only the useful ally, the support. In a concerto the whole band accompany the instrument for which the chief and prominent part is composed, except in the tutti parts, (i.e., those portions of the concerto in which the principal instrument rests,) then the orchestral parts take the form of a full piece. Accompaniment is also the harmony of a figured base, or another word for what is, by a foolish, unmeaning termbut too generally adopted to be at once discarded-called thorough-base. The Accompaniment of the Scale is the harmony assigned, partly by what may be called nature and partly by custom, to that series of notes denominated the diatonic scale ascending and descending, such scale being taken as a base. Ex. The diatonic scale adopted as a melody has one simple accompaniment, consisting almost exclusively of common chords; but it is also susceptible of many different harmonies, the study of which is of the utmost importance to the singer, as well as the accompanist and composer. [See DIATONIC SCALE.] Dr. Burney (in Rees' Cyclopædia) seems very much inclined to favour the opinions concerning accompaniment which Rousseau endeavoured to propagate in his Lettre sur la Musique Française. This acute French writer, the zealous defender of the Italian school when, as relates to dramatic music, it certainly was the best, thinks that an accompaniment of the smallest possible number of notes is to be preferred; and he appears to have been enraptured by a little boy who, at the performance of an Italian burletta in Paris, accompanied, on the harpsichord, the airs with harmony of the most meagre kind, sometimes playing with only two fingers. Rousseau had not acquired a taste for rich harmony, for with the music of the German school he was very little, if at all, acquainted; but that our celebrated and generally very judicious English writer, to whom the finest compositions of Germany were well known, should have sanctioned opinions formed upon the imperfect knowledge of the subject existing in the middle of the last century, is somewhat a matter of surprise; and as Dr. Burney is an authority, it is more necessary, for the sake of the art, to demur to his judgment here. Est modus in rebus—and sensible accompanists well know this medium. The old Italian accompaniment can now hardly be endured; while, certainly, many ultra-Germanists of the present day overpower melody by the multitude of notes which, for want of sound judgment, and in a true pedantic spirit, they are so prone to employ. ACCOMPTS.-[See BOOK-KEEPING.] ACCOUNT or ACCOMPT (from the low Latin Computus), is a form of action which in the earlier times was much resorted to, and of which frequent mention is made in the old law books. Strictly, it lay only against a bailiff or receiver, requiring him to render an account of the moneys received by him as such bailiff or receiver; but the form of action being found to be one of the most convenient at that time, it was extended to cases where the person called upon to account was neither a bailiff nor an authorized receiver, if he had in any way received and retained money which it was his duty to have handed over to the claimant. At present the action of account is rarely used, a bill in equity being found to be in practice a much more effectual mode of settling disputed accounts; whilst in the other cases formerly embraced by the action of account, various modern and more simple forms of proceeding are adopted in preference to this, which is difficult, dilatory, and expensive. ACCUMULATION, in Political Economy, is the act of adding one Saving to another for the purpose of forming Capital. Every saving indicates an excess of production over consumption, and the accumulated excess constitutes individual and national riches. In 1832, 14,311,6477. was the amount of deposits in Savings-Banks in England, Wales, and Ireland, made by 429,400 depositors. This large capital was an accumulation, penny by penny, shilling by shilling, and pound by pound, of the savings of that class of persons who, in every country, have the greatest difficulty in accumulating. Habitual efforts of self-denial, and a rigid determination to postpone temporary gratification to permanent good, could alone have enabled these accumulators to retain so much of what they had produced beyond the amount of what they consumed. This sum of 14,311,6477. represents as many products of industry as could be bought by that sum. It is a capital which remains for the encouragement of productive consumption; that is, it is now applied as a fund for setting others to produce,to enable them to consume while they produce, and in like manner to accumulate some part of their productions beyond what they consume. The whole amount of our national riches the capital of this, and of every other country-has been formed by the same slow but certain process of individual savings, and the accumulations of savings. The consumption of any production is the destruction of its value. The production was created by industry to administer to individual wants, to be consumed, to be destroyed. When a thing capable of being consumed is produced, a value is created; when it is consumed, that value is destroyed. The general mass of riches then remains the same as it was before that production took place. If the power to produce, and the disposition to consume, were equal and constant, there could be no saving, no accumulation, no capital. If mankind, by their intelligence, their skill, their division of employments, their union of forces, had not put themselves in a condition to produce more than is consumed while the great body of industrious undertakings is in progress, society would have been stationary,-civilization could never have advanced. Whatever is consumed by those who are carrying forward the business of production, is called productive consumption. Whatever, on the other hand, is consumed by those who are not engaged in re-producing, is called unproductive consumption.-I. A shoemaker, we will say, rents a shop, works up leather and other materials, uses various tools, burns out candles, and is himself fed and clothed while in the act of producing a pair of shoes. This is productive consumption;-for the pair of shoes represents the value of the materials employed in them, the commodities consumed by the shoemaker during their production, and the wear and tear of the tools applied in making them. If the shoes represent a higher value than what has been consumed, in consequence of the productiveness of the labour of the shoemaker, the difference is net produce, which may be saved, and with other savings, become capital.-2. The shoemaker, we will suppose, accumulates profits sufficient to enable him to live without making shoes, or applying himself to any |