be thrown into the sea, because they appeared to have too much influence over his son Veli. [Since his mother was an Albanese and his father a Turk, from this double relationship, he seized on all property left by persons dying, on pretence that the testator was his relation, by the mother's side, if he happened to be a Greek, or on his father's side, if a Turk. In this way A. amassed vast quantities of furniture and utensils, and occasionally held a market for the sale of these effects. A Jew was his treasurer. If he saw a beautiful maiden whom he wished to possess, his executioner, who was always at his side, went to the parents and said, "Your daughter has pleased Ali ;" whereupon the daughter was sent to him, or the whole family were obliged to fly. The writer of this knows two families who were compelled to fly in this way. He took possession, in the same summary mode, of every thing which struck his fancy. This favourite of fortune had great endowments from nature.*] He united a remarkably enterprising spirit with equal penetration; an extraordinary knowledge of men and things with determination and courage; great firmness with great adroitness. But he was false, suspicious, implacable and blood-thirsty from ambition and avarice; every means pleased him alike, provided that it led him to his object with quickness and safety. The dissensions of his enemies, the corruption of the divan, and the political weakness of the Porte, were the corner-stones on which this modern Jugurtha built up his ephemeral greatness."

The beginning of the article "Algebra," is so much changed. for the better, that we think proper to translate, literally, the original, and to exhibit it with the one inserted in the American publication, to enable the reader to determine upon the merit of both :

(In the original.) "ALGEBRA.' The terms Algebra and Analysis, are often employed as synonymous. But Analysis' is the general exposition and development of the combination of magnitudes by calculation; whereas Algebra confines itself to the consideration of equations, (the symbolic forms of these combinations,) and by means of them the extraction of the known from the unknown quantities, and the instrument (or what after the preceding explanation may be called the grammar) of which it avails itself to that end, is furnished by the literal Arithmetic. The word Algebra, † derived from Gebr, the name of its propagator, an Arabian who lived at Seville in the nineteenth century, and the Arabic particle 'Al' is, therefore, according to Bezout's definition, a language into which certain propositions are translated, to be combined according to the rules which this language indicates, and thus leads, by the discovery of the results of these combinations, to conclusions which it would be difficult, and in some cases even impossible, to obtain by any other process."

In the American work, the definition of Algebra is as follows: "Algebra is a general method of resolving mathematical problems by means of equations, or it is a method of performing the calculations of all sorts of quantities by means of general signs or characters. Some authors define algebra as the art of resolving mathematical problems; but this is the idea of analysis, or the analytic art in general, rather than of algebra, which is only one species of it. In the application of algebra to the resolution of problems, we must first translate the problem out of common into algebraic language, by expressing all the conditions and quantities both known and unknown, by their proper characters, arranged in an equation, or several equations, if necessary, and treating the unknown quantity as if it were a known one: this forms the composition. Then the resolution, or analytic part, is the disentangling the unknown quantity from the several others with which it is connected, so as to retain it alone on one side of the equation, while all the known quantities are collected on the

The lines enclosed in brackets are an addition.

The etymology is not so certain as it might appear from this passage.

other side, thus obtaining the value of the unknown. This process is called analysis, or resolution; and hence algebra is a species of the analytic art, and is called the modern analysis, in contradistinction to the ancient analysis, which chiefly regarded geometry and its application."

The advantage is manifestly on the side of the book we are reviewing.

The superiority of the algebraical language over all others, is also better explained. We notice the omission of the following passage, less on account of its importance, than to fill up the measure of the parallel we have desired to present:-"The precision, clearness, brevity, and generality of algebra, are so great, that a problem needs only to be expressed by the proper signs or characters to procure not only the required result, but many others of no less interest, and which sometimes disclose such as were the least expected."*-More commendation, but not too much, is bestowed in the translation than in the original on Mr. Hirsch's "Algebraical Problems."

Accident more than design has determined our choice for a specimen from natural history, on the article "Alligator," which, in the original, consists of these few lines:-"Alligator, or Caiman, belongs to the order of lizards, and is considerably rounder and smoother on the body and the tail than the Crocodile: it is also inferior to it in length. Its eggs are smaller, and it belongs to middle America. The Brazilians are skilful in tanning alligator skins."

It would be derogatory to the distinguished and interesting author of the following article, to bring it into a comparison with the preceding. We quote it at its full length,† to show what a superiority the American publication promises to gain by contributions from the same quarter:

"ALLIGATOR; the name of a large reptile, of the saurian or lizard order, derived, according to Cuvier, from a corruption of the Portuguse word lagarto, equivalent to the Latin lacerta. The alligators or caimans form the second subgenus of Cuvier's crocodile family, and belong to the southern parts of the American continent. Two species, very numerous in these regions, are well known; the spectacled caiman, crocodilus sclerops, most common in Guiana and Brazil; and the pike-nosed A. (C. lucius,) frequenting the southern rivers and lagoons of the U. States. In the water, the full-grown A. is a terrible animal, on account of its great size and strength. It grows to the length of 15 or 20 feet, is covered by a dense harness of horny scales, impenetrable to a musket ball, except about the head and shoulders, and has a huge mouth, armed with a fearful row of strong, unequal, conical teeth, some of which shut into cavities of the upper jaw-bone. They swim or dart along through the water with wonderful celerity, impelled by their long, laterally-compressed and powerful tails, which serve as very efficient oars. On land, their motions are proportionally slow and embarrassed, because of the length and unwieldiness of their bodies, the shortness of their

The article "Analysis," is, in the original, better than the one on Algebra.

We would also willingly enrich our pages with the articles" Albatross” and Animal, Animal Life and Animal Heat, apparently from the same pen.

limbs, and the sort of small, false ribs which reach from joint to joint of their necks, and render lateral motion very difficult. In addition to the usual number of ribs and false ribs, they are furnished with others, for the protection of the belly, which do not rise up to the spine. The lower jaw extends farther back than the skull, so that the neck must be somewhat bent when it is opened; the appearance thus produced has led to the very universal error of believing that the A. moves its upper jaw, which is incapable of motion, except with the rest of the body. Under the throat of this animal are two openings or pores, the excretory ducts from glands, which pour out a strong, musky fluid, that gives the A. its peculiarly unpleasant smell.-In the spring of the year, when the males are under the excitement of the sexual propensity, they frequently utter a roar which is a very alarming sound, from its harshness and reverberation, resembling distant thunder, especially where numbers are at the same time engaged. At this period, frequent and terrible battles take place between the males, which terminate in the discomfiture and retreat of one of the parties. At this season, also, an old champion is seen to dart forth on the surface of the waters, in a straight line, at first as swiftly as lightning, gradually moving slower as he reaches the centre of a lake; there he stops, inflates himself by inhaling air and water, which makes a loud rattling in his throat for a moment, until he ejects it with vast force from his mouth and nostrils, making a loud noise, and vibrating his tail vigorously in the air. Sometimes, after thus inflating himself, with head and tail raised above the water, he whirls round until the waves are worked to foam, and, at length, retires, leaving to others an opportu nity of repeating similar exploits, which have been compared to an Indian warrior rehearsing his acts of bravery, and exhibiting his strength by gesticulation. -The females make their nests in a curious manner, upon the banks of rivers or lagoons, generally in the marshes, along which, at a short distance from the water, the nests are arranged somewhat like an encampment. They are obtuse cones, 4 feet high, and about 4 feet in diameter at the base, and built of mud and grass. A floor of such mortar is first spread upon the ground, on which a layer of eggs, having hard shells, and larger than those of a common hen, are spread. Upon these another layer of mortar, 7 or 8 inches in thickness, is deposited, and then another bed of eggs: and this is repeated nearly to the top. From 100 to 200 eggs are found in one nest. It is not ascertained whether each female watches her own nest exclusively, or attends to more than her own brood. It is unquestionable, however, that the females keep near the nests, and take the young under their vigilant care as soon as they are hatched, defending them with great perseverance and courage. The young are seen following their mother through the water like a brood of chickens following a hen. When basking in the sun on shore, the young are heard whining and yelping about the mother, not unlike young puppies. In situations where alligators are not exposed to much disturbance, the nesting-places appear to be very much frequented, as the grass and reeds are broken down for several acres around. The young, when first hatched, are very feeble and helpless, and are devoured by birds of prey, soft-shelled turtles, &c., as well as by the male alligators, until they grow old enough to defend themselves. As the eggs are also eagerly sought by vultures and other animals, the race would become speedily extinct, but for the great fecundity of the females.-The A. is generally considered as disposed to retire from man, but this is only to be understood of alligators frequenting rivers or waters where they are frequently disturbed, or have learned to dread the injuries which man inflicts. In situations where they are seldom or never interrupted, they have shown a ferocity and perseverance in attacking individuals in boats, of the most alarming character; endeavouring to overturn them, or rearing their heads from the water, and snapping their jaws in a fearful manner. Bartram, who has made more interesting and valuable observations on the A. than any other naturalist, gives numerous instances of their daring and ferocious disposition, and himself very narrowly escaped with his life on several occasions. At present, alligators, though still numerous in Florida and Louisiana, are no longer regarded as very dangerous. Their numbers annually decrease, as their haunts are intruded upon by man, and at no distant period they must be nearly, if not

quite exterminated.-In the winter, the alligators spend great part of their time in deep holes, which they make in the marshy banks of rivers, &c. They feed upon fish, various reptiles, or carrion flesh which is thrown into the streams, and, though very voracious, are capable of existing a long time without food. The barking of a dog, it is said, will at any time cause them to forsake their holes, and come on shore, as they prey upon any small quadruped or domestic animal which comes within their reach. They have a very small brain, and live a long time even after it is destroyed. Titian Peale, a naturalist distinguished for prac tical acquaintance with the works of nature, informed the writer that he destroy ed the whole superior part of the head and brain of a large A. by a ball from his gun, in the morning of a long day, and, on passing the same place in the evening, he found the animal had crawled off. Following his trail through the marsh for a considerable distance, he found him still alive, and, though dreadfully mangled about the head, ready to make battle.-In the economy of nature, alliga tors are of very considerable importance. They abound most where fish and other creatures are found in the greatest numbers. Their voracity tends to repress exuberant increase in the beings upon which they feed; while themselves are exposed to very numerous enemies in early life, and gradually pass away, as man usurps the sway over their peculiar dominions. The peculiarities of construction, &c. will be given under the title Crocodile, which see.”

To exemplify the omissions on account of the different degree of interest which some of the articles are calculated to have in this country and Germany, we may mention, that although the one on Antiquity is translated with few alterations, another, on German Antiquities, has been left out, and not improperly. 'Angling" is much more detailed and interesting in the work before us, than in the original; and indeed while we turn from page to page, we find frequent improvements and enlargements, of considerable merit, but which it would require more space than we can dispose of to notice.

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For the quotations from German poets, are substituted examples from English. Thus in the word "Alliteration," the lines, "Weave the warp and weave the woof,”

and

"Ruin seize thee, ruthless king,"

are not in the original, but quoted already by Dr. Rees.

We refer the reader to the articles on the Road over the Alps, Architecture, Agriculture, and Bankrupt, as performances of considerable merit; the one on Agrarian Laws, which bears testimony of research and classical lore, though chiefly founded. on Niebuhr's view of the subject, is not in the German original. The articles Astronomy, and History of Astronomy, are enlarged and considerably improved. As another valuable addition, we may also mention the interesting notice on "Baltimore birds," and the article "Barratry."

More might have been inserted on Botany and Mineralogy, and some law terms have been forgotten.* We could also notice a few errors; as, for instance, instead of Agis IV. it ought to be Agis III., the race of the Heraclidæ being distinct from the Pro

v. g. ‘Affidavit,' 'Ad inquirendum,' 'Ademption.' VOL. VI.-No. 12.

46

clidae. But it would be an enterprise altogether disproportionate to the character and limits of our journal, to carry further our examination. By the specimens which we have brought forward, and which are taken almost at random, we have, we trust, justified in some degree our favourable opinion of the volume under review, and we may sum up by stating, that we consider this publication as creditable to the editors and their coadjutors, and to the enlightened and enterprising publishers, who have undertaken, with very moderate pretensions to pecuniary recompense, (for they are probably right in asserting that it "is one of the cheapest works ever published in this country,") to furnish a work of reference well worthy to occupy a place among the books of every man of intelligence, taste, and enlightened curiosity, and to which they might have prefixed the motto,

"Indocti discant et ament meminisse periti."

The future volumes will perhaps give occasion to more remarks on the general merits of the American Encyclopædia. The paper and the type of the first volume leave little to desire, especially considering the low price of the work.

ART. V.-The Philosophy of the Active and Moral Powers of Man: by DUGALD STEWART, Esq. F. R. S. S.: London and Edinburgh: Boston: Wells & Lilly: 1828.

Or what value to mankind is the gift of an individual, in whom great talents are combined with the disposition to employ them for the benefit of others? Such beings not only diffuse a radiance over their own age, but like the stars of the firmament, are formed to enlighten ages not yet called into existence. This is eminently true of those who have employed their powers in adding to the stock of human knowledge, in umasking error, in rendering truth more attractive and more accessible to ordinary minds.

Of this class was Dugald Stewart; and the work named at the head of this article, is his last bequest to posterity. That the cause of human improvement was near to his heart, we cannot doubt, for he devoted his life and his talents to its service. He studied the human mind, not merely as a subject of interesting speculation, but for the purpose of obtaining rules, which might promote its cultivation and development; in the hope of being able to present it to others under such interesting aspects, as would lead them to a knowledge of its worth, and its susceptibility of improvement. With this object in view, he surveyed