were made acquainted with the stars by Chiron. The invention of a machine, probably resembling an armillary sphere, has been attributed by some to Atlas, and by others to Musæus. During the time of the Trojan war Palamedes was celebrated for his knowledge ofastronomy." In Asia, and in Egypt, this science, to speak after the most moderate calculations, had been cultivated for many ages, before the time of Homer. The poet, therefore, either was not, or ought not to have been, unacquainted with those celestial signs, which never set. But it is further contended, that the Great Bear was the only Arctic constellation known to Homer, because the ancient Egyptians, who instructed the Greeks in astronomy, were unacquainted with Cepheus, Draco, and Ursa Minor. Achilles Tatius says, that there were no constellations known by these names in the Egyptian sphere. I shall have occasion to show presently, that this is true, as far as it regards Ursa Minor; but with respect to Cepheus and Draco, I conceive the case to be very different. Cepheus, or the King of Ethiopia, is the name of a constellation of considerable magnitude, which never entirely sets in Egypt. How then could it have escaped the notice of the Egyptian astronomers? The Indian astronomers call it by the name of Capya, and this may have been the ancient Egyptian name, from which the Greeks had their Cepheus. This constellation had its place in the tables of the Arabians.8 The Jews, or rather their more learned neighbors the Chaldeans, denominated Cepheus by Dominus flammæ. From whom did the Greeks obtain the astronomical fable of this Ethiopian King, if not from the Egyptians? I must likewise remark, that Cepheus is evidently a word of foreign origin. It was, perhaps, derived from caphaph, curvavit; nor, when we consider that this constellation continually revolves round the pole, without ever entirely setting even in Ethiopia, of which country Cepheus was fabled to be King, will this conjecture appear unfounded. The word caph, signifies any thing hollow. Hence our word cope; and it is possible, that Cepheus, never leaving the cope of heaven, to descend below the horizon, may have been named from caph. But leaving the etymology, on which it would be difficult to say any thing positive, I cannot imagine, that a constellation, in which Ptolemy, without the assistance of glasses, reckoned thirteen stars, was unknown to the more ancient Egyptian astronomers, in whose country, it must have been observed, (I should think,) that some, at least, of these stars never descended below the horizon. I find it equally difficult to believe, that the more ancient Egyptian astronomers were unacquainted with Draco-a constellation that must always have attracted attention on this side of the torrid zone, not 1 Clem. Alex. Strom. L. i. 4 Sophocl. in Naupl. 6 Uranolog. C. xxxix. 2 Diodor. Sicul. 8 Consult the tables of Bayer, Riccioli, &c. 3 Diog. Laert. 5 Orig. des Loix. T. ii. 7 Asiat. Research. Vol. iii. 9 Kircher writes nya; but, I think, inaccurately, only from its proximity to the pole, but from its magnitude and brilliancy. We find it represented by a serpent in one of the Egyptian planispheres edited by Kircher.' We again find it under the same form in the Egyptian Zodiac, of which an account was published in the Mem. de l'Acad. des Sci. The Chaldeans denominated this constellation which word I should be inclined to translate the great fish (perhaps, the great tunny,) rather than the dragon. Now it is to be observed, that the Greeks did not give to the constellation the form, which imagination has lent to the dragon. They represented it as a serpent with the head of a fish.3 Nevertheless the constellation was known in the East from remote antiquity by the name of the Dragon. The Chinese had given it this name more than 4000 years ago. Had the Greeks first separated and denominated this constellation, they would probably have made the form accord with the name. But they seem to have united the fish of the Chaldeans, with the serpent of the Egyptians, and to have borrowed the name from the Orientalists. Under all these circumstances, it is difficult to believe, that the more ancient Egyptian astronomers were ignorant of a constellation, in which Ptolemy afterwards counted no less than 31 stars, which of course were visible to the eye. I have examined the pages of Aratus with some attention, but I do not find, that he has authorised the assertion of Tatius, as I had once been led to think. I likewise observe that Tatius, who lived so late as the time of Claudius, has fallen into some mistakes, concerning the astronomy of the ancient Egyptians, which render his authority extremely suspicious. Thus he says, that the Great Bear was not an Egyptian constellation. Now that this is a flagrant mistake appears from the very ancient inscription on the column of Osiris. Eiuè dè Ὅσιρις ὁ Βασιλεὺς, ὁ στρατεύσας ἐπὶ πᾶσαν χώραν, ἕως εἰς τοὺς ἀοικήτους τόπους τῶν Ινδῶν, καὶ τοὺς πρὸς Αρκτον κεκλιμένους, &c. But I am Osiris the King, who hath marched his army over the whole region, even unto the uninhabitable countries of the Indies, and unto those lying near to the Bear. I might point out some other mistakes, which have been made by Tatius; but I do not conceive, that this is necessary; and I imagine, that few of my readers will now be disposed to think, upon his authority, that the ancient Egyptians were ignorant of the constellations of Cepheus and Draco. It has been moreover argued from the statement which Homer himself has made, that he was unacquainted with these constellations. The Poet has said, that all the signs were engraven on the shield, and then names the Pleiades, the Hyades, Orion, and the Bear, commonly called the Wain. From this it is inferred, that he mentioned the appellations of all the signs which he knew. This induction has been hastily made. Homer has mentioned Boötes, and the Great Dog,' in 1 Ed. Æg. iii. 2 For 1708. 3 See the celestial globe. 4 Long's Hist. of Astron. vol. ii. 7 II. X. v. 29. other places, and does not notice them here. An Epic Poem is not the place in which we are to look for an astronomical catalogue. Homer names some of the most remarkable of the constellations; but I cannot thence conclude, that he knew of no more. But if Homer were acquainted with the constellations, which are called Cepheus and Draco, in what manner can he be excused for saying, that the Wain is the only sign which never sets? My answer is, that if he framed his map of the heavens in Egypt, or that if he took it from an Egyptian model, as Mr. Bryant supposes, his account, it seems to me, will be found to be strictly accurate. The star, which is now called the Polar star, must have been distant 'not less than 15° from the Pole in the Trojan times. About 4000 years ago, the star a in Draco was only 10 minutes from the Pole." About 3000 years ago, the star x in Draco was rather less than 5° from the Pole, and was the nearest remarkable star. But as the Earth's Pole continued to revolve round the Pole of the Ecliptic, the star 6 in Ursa Minor would probably be considered as the Polar star about 2450 years ago. I am aware that Bernouilli has brought the period down to 2000 years ago; but with due deference to that great man, I am inclined to abide by my own statement. Let us now consider the consequences to our argument, which may be derived from these remarks. I reckon that it was about 2450 years ago, that the star 6 in Ursa Minor was first considered as the Polar star. The constellation itself contains few, and no very brilliant stars, and, therefore, could scarcely have attracted the notice of mariners and travellers; but when the star 6 came to be the nearest to the Pole, it would necessarily engage the attention of both. This star, therefore, and those around it, which had probably been hitherto included in the folds of the serpent, or dragon, might properly be separated into a new constellation. This theory seems to agree with facts. The Greeks were first made acquainted with Ursa Minor by Thales, who obtained his own knowledge of it from the Phoenicians: Thales florished about 2350 years ago. But Strabo says, that the Phoenicians first became acquainted with Ursa Minor, and gave to it the rank of a constellation. I, therefore, conclude, that this happened, when the star ẞ came to be the nearest star to the Pole, about 100 years before Thales, and about 250 years after the death of Homer. It follows that Ursa Minor could not have been known to that poet. But since the star a in Draco was only 10 from the Pole about 4000 years ago, and since about the Trojan times, or 3000 years ago, the star in Draco was within 5° of the Pole, it appears that the Pole's place, about 3000 years ago, was such, as that the seven stars of the Wain must all have been within the arctic circle, and could never have been seen to set on this side of the tropic of Cancer. Now this was not the case with parts, at least, of Cepheus and Draco. In Egypt, as far north as Memphis, parts of Cepheus and Draco would annually sink below the horizon. It is, therefore, true, that about the Trojan 'Long's Hist. of Astron. 2 Bailly Hist del' Astron. 3 Mem. de Berl. 1778. 1 times, and in the land of Egypt, the seven stars of the Wain, which Homer evidently meant to indicate, formed the only constellation, which was always entirely above the horizon, and of which no part ever bathed itself in the ocean. -If this reasoning be well founded, and I humbly think that it is so, it may tend to enable the admirers of Homer to reply to the objections of the Abbé Terrasson, who has severely criticised the passage be fore us.. I shall now proceed to consider the objects represented on the circumference of the shield. Here we find four great divisions, each of which may be subdivided into three parts. In each partition there is a separate picture; and a very just idea of the whole seems to be conveyed in the print and explanations, annexed to Mr. Pope's translation of the Iliad. The four great divisions plainly indicate four different states of society,-the civil state,-the military-the agriculturaland the pastoral. This is evident from the représentations contained in each.-1st. a town in which nuptial rites are celebrated, and a cause is pleaded and tried.-2nd. a town besieged, an ambuscade, and a battle.-3rd. tillage, the harvest,and the vintage.-4th. herds, flocks, and a rustic dance. But I have been led to think, that Homer also meant to typify in his pictures the four seasons, and the twelve months of the year. I am likewise of opinion, that though his map of the earth and of the celestial appearances was copied from an Egyptian model, yet that in his description of this part of the shield, he adverted to certain customs, manners, and usages, borrowed indeed originally from the Egyptians, but already established in his own time among the Greeks. I think that he particularly alludes to the institutions of the Athenians and of the Thebans, who were colonists, the first from Egypt, and the last from Phoenicia. 2 Before I enter more particularly into this disquisition, it seems necessary that I should say a few words on the Grecian year. The Attic year is that, which I shall consider. It is stated by Scaliger,' Dodwell, and Potter,3 that the most ancient Attic year commenced at the winter solstice. But the Athenians were Egyptian colonists; and the Egyptians had no year which began at that season. How then did the people of Attica come to fix the commencement of their ancient year at the winter solstice? I shall endeavour to explain this. 4 It is said by Syncellus, that the year of 365 days was established by Asis, or Aseth, who began to reign over Egypt about 1772 years before Christ, and who sat about fifty years on the throne. From this statement we might infer, that the year of 360 days had been in use before the time of Asis; but from the accounts of Plutarch and Diodorus Siculus, it would appear that the five days had been intercalated even previously to the birth of Osiris and Isis. I, therefore, conclude, that Asis had only reformed the calendar, or had changed the thoth, or commencement of the year. 'De Emend. Tempor. 2 De Vet. Cycl. 3 Antiq. vol. 1. 6 L. 1. I The Egyptian monarchs were obliged to take an oath, that they would maintain the year of 365 days free from intercalation; and the priests carefully distinguished this year, from that which consisted of 365 days and a quarter. When they reckoned for the solar year, they added a day, at the end of every fourth year consisting of 365 days; but when they reckoned for the civil year, they omitted this day. It follows, that the civil year was a vague one, and that at the end of every fourth year, a day would be lost, and it would have a new thoth, or commencement. The astronomers perceived that 1461 of these vague years would be exactly contained in 1460 solar years; and this cycle was called the Sothic, because it commenced with the rising of Sothis, or Sirius. Censorinus tells us, that the year in which he wrote his book, and which was 238 years after the birth of Christ, answered to the hundredth year of the Sothic period. Consequently the preceding Sothic period must have terminated 138 years after our æra; and must have commenced 1322 years before it. Petavius3 states, that Sirius rose heliacally on the 20th of July in the year 1322 before Christ; and that the summer solstice took place on the 5th of the same month, in the same year; but according to the precession of the equinoxes the solstice must then have had place, about the 22nd day of July. From this it appears, that the thoth, or commencement, of the Sothic period, 1322 years before Christ, must have accorded pretty nearly with the summer solstice of the same year. According to Sir Isaac Newton, the year of 365 days moves back thirty-three days and five hours, in 137 years. If then the thoth corresponded nearly with the summer tropic 1322 years before Christ, it could not have been far from the autumnal equinox towards the end of the reign of Asis or Aseth, which began 1772 years before our æra, and lasted about half a century. By the same rule, if the thoth accorded nearly with the autumnal equinox, a little more than seventeen centuries before Christ, it must have nearly corresponded with the winter solstice about 2100 years before our æra. Eusebius, in his Chronicon, has fixed the foundation of the kingdom of Sicyon, when the Pelasgi first established themselves in Greece, for the year 2089 before Christ. Now there can be little doubt, that the Pelasgi derived most, if not all their knowledge originally, at least, from Egypt; and without assuming too much, I think, I may conclude, that since the thoth, as we have just seen, corresponded nearly with the winter solstice, when they first settled in Greece, nothing was more likely than that their descendants, who might not know how to follow the wandering year of the Egyptians, should continue through a long lapse of ages, to consider the shortest day of the year, as its last, and the day succeeding as its first. I shall as shortly as possible state the following reasons in support of what I have been saying. 1. The most ancient Greek year was a solar, and not a lunar year.+ 1 Panth. Ægypt. 3 De Doct. tem. L. v. C. vi. 2 De Die Natal. C. xxi. |