PIC poetry enjoyed a singular revival in Italy in the fifteenth century and reached its zenith in the sixteenth. It began with the light uplifting of the romances of Charlemagne by the genial Luigi Pulci from the mire into which they had sunk. The same themes were treated more seriously by his contemporary, Count Boiardo. Similar legends invited other poets. Luigi Alamanni (1495-1556) wrote an Arthurian epic, "Avarchide," on the siege of Bourges; Gian Giorgio Trissino (1478-1550) treated in blank verse "L'Italia Liberata," the theme being the expedition of Belisarius against the Goths; Bernardo Tasso, father of the greater poet, composed a hundred cantos on the Amadis of Gaul; the unfortunate Berni (d. 1536) made a recast of Boiardo's "Orlando Innamorato." But this attractive subject still waited for the genius of the divine Ariosto to make it the standard of the romantic epic. His fertile imagination enriched the old legends with a profusion of episodes and poetic charms, as the vine twining over the elm decks it with abundance of new leaves and rich clusters. Though the basis of his epic belongs to the Christian period, the poem is half pagan in treatment, as was characteristic of the Italian Renaissance, and sports with its heroes sometimes in an entertaining way, but again in a provoking manner.

The richly gifted, yet too sensitive, genius of Tasso coming later into the field, resolved to construct a truly Christian epic on a theme which should stir the emotions of Christian hearts.

The First Crusade, by its momentous contest between the piously enthusiastic yet comparatively barbarous Christians of the West, and the noble and brilliant Saracens, was worthy of the noblest efforts of his lofty imagination and prolific fancy. The scene was laid in the East, in a land which had been the theatre of most brilliant actions, and was consecrated by the associations of piety. The Saracens considered themselves called to subjugate the world to the faith of the Prophet Mohammed; the Christians to recover the sepulchre of their Divine Redeemer. The religious spirit of that age was wholly warlike, and it had a remarkable echo in the age of Tasso, when the Turks were threatening the conquest of Europe. Tasso's epic is confined to the campaign of 1099, in which Jerusalem was delivered from the rule of the Saracens. In it a nobler part is assigned to the passion of love than has been given in any other epic. With the heroes of the ancient classics love is a weakness, but with the Christian knights a devotion. In this respect Tasso's poem was undoubtedly a reflex of his own character, full of romance and tender sentiments.

Tasso also imitated Eschylus in his tragedy "Torrismondo" on the subject of the Goths, and invented the pastoral drama in "Aminta." Sannazaro had already revived the pastoral in his "Arcadia," but the pastoral play was a novelty. Tasso's shepherds live in the Golden Age, and while not of courtly fashion, neither are they of modern rusticity. The love-sick swain and scornful shepherdess are introduced, but they were not entirely unknown in the earlier Provençal lays.

During this century the flood of novels in imitation of Boccaccio's "Decameron" still continued. Sabadino Degli Arienti, Agnolo Firenzuola, Giraldi Cinthio, Francesco Grazzini, Straparola, Matteo Bandello and many others wrote tales of similar tenor, the plots of which have often been adopted by writers of other nationalities. Bandello is esteemed the next in rank to Boccaccio.

LUDOVICO ARIOSTO.

FOR his beautiful style the Italians, with mingled familiarity and enthusiasm, have

In

called Ariosto "Ludovico the Divine." He was born in 1474 and died in 1533, being the greatest Italian poet between Petrarch and Tasso. His romantic epic, "Orlando Furioso," fills a curious niche in the Temple of Fame between Dante's "Commedia" and Tasso's "Gerusalemme Liberata" (Jerusalem Delivered). Both of these masterpieces were inspired by a truly religious spirit. Dante's poem was half pagan, half mediæval; Tasso's was half medieval, half modern. Ariosto, however, we behold the reflex of the skepticism of his age, that turned from the legends of the Church to the Carlovingian romances. In order to appreciate exactly the impulse, nature and success of Ariosto's poem it is necessary to recall the rise of this romantic cycle and its antecedent treatment at the hands of Luigi Pulci (1431-1484), and Count Matteo Boiardo (1434-1494), without the last of whom, indeed, it may be truthfully said Ariosto's work would have been impossible. It must be observed that "Charlemagne became to Christendom what Eneas was to Rome, and his historical character was entirely superseded and overlaid by his mythical and acquired personality. The chief repository of the legends concerning him is the Latin chronicle of Saint Jago, attributed by its author to Archbishop Turpin, the Emperor's spiritual peer, and the Northern French chansons de geste, which were very popular in Italy. Charlemagne's real exploits in Germany where he defeated the Saxons, and in Italy where he overthrew the Lombards, were not forgotten; but the romancers delighted in celebrating his expedition to Spain, despite its calamitous issue. The reason is not far to seek.

The Moors stood in the same relation to the Emperor's Frankish chivalry as the Saracens afterwards stood to the Christians. Hence it was easy for writers to invest their narrative with associations and sentiments which had grown up during the Crusades." (Snell.)

The particular legend of Roland (translated by the Italians into Orlando) grew out of the battle of Roncesvalles, in August, 778 A.D. Although not even mentioned in the original history of Archbishop Turpin, Roland became the hero of a version revised by a monk of Vienne. This pseudo-Turpin relates Roland's bravery, the episode of his farresounding horn, of his battle with the giant Ferracute (Ariosto's Ferrau), Ganelon's treachery and Charlemagne's later vengeance on the Saracens. The "Chanson de Roland" * not only told of Turpin's own fate, but added a second hero to Roland in Oliver. Roland falls in love with Oliver's sister, Aude, and fights a duel with Oliver. Roland's sword is named "Durendal." In Italy, however, this legend was to be most glorified. Nicolas of Padua (1320) wrote an elaborate romance concerning the "Entree en Espagne" (Entry into Spain), and its sequel, "La Prise de Pampelune" (Taking of Pampeluna). These romances formed the groundwork for Sagna's "Rotta di Roncesvalle" (Defeat at Roncesvalles). Besides this there was a prose harmony of this Cycle of Charles the Great, entitled "Reali di Francia" (The Frankish Royalty). At last Pulci lifted these despised vernacular romances from the popular level into courtly style. Orlando (Roland), the hero, is now made the nephew of Charlemagne. Portions of Pulci's epic are so extravagant, so grotesque, so bizarre, that the idea has inevitably occurred that the poet nourished a design similar to that of Cervantes, and in reality was merely mocking at the institutions of chivalry. The "Orlando Innamorato" of his successor Boiardo is graver in style and loftier in spirit; the angry warrior is transformed into the enamored lover of Angelica, an infidel princess of exquisite beauty and consummate coquetry. Angelica retires to a castle in Cathay where she is besieged by Agricane, a

* See Volume I., pp. 199–204.

fabulous king of Tartary, who is defeated and killed by Orlando. The style of this epic was too labored and heavy to suit the masses, for whom the flippant Berni made a new version of the poem, that appeared almost simultaneously with Ariosto's greater work. Curiously enough, Ariosto, who was to continue and eclipse Boiardo, was a son of a governor of the citadel of Reggio, who had superseded Boiardo in that post. He was also, like Boiardo, a courtier of the house of Este at Ferrara. Nevertheless, the only acknowledgment given by Cardinal Ippolito of Este to the poet's verses was the patronizing remark: "Where did you find so many stories, Master Ludovic?" Yet Ariosto was once spared by the bandits of the Apennines in honor of his great masterpiece. The courtier poet lived and died in poverty. After his death it was claimed that Charles V. had crowned him.

Ariosto filed and polished his epic, "Orlando Furioso," to the day of his death. The Italian ottava (octave) stanza attained in him the highest perfection of grace, variety and harmony. The epic was first published in 1516 in forty cantos, afterwards increased to forty-six. The plot of Ariosto's poem begins at a point before Boiardo's unfinished epic ends. The hero of "Orlando Furioso" is in reality the Saracen knight, Rogero (Ruggiero), who receives baptism for the sake of his love for Bradamante, sister of Rinaldo. The narrative of their love is elegantly recited, as well as Bradamante's fight in armor in a duel with her own knight. She has an enchanted spear. Corneille wrote later a drama on this episode. Full of poetic beauties are the descriptions by Ariosto of the death of the Duke Zerbino, the complaints of Isabella, his wife, the discord among the Saracens, and the love of Rogero and Bradamante. In the end, Orlando, mad for his love of Angelica, has his wits brought back from the moon in a phial by the Scotch magician Astolfo, who also has a horn with which he can destroy whole armies at a blast. Ariosto's epic has been translated into English by Sir John Harington and by William Stewart Rose. Our extracts are from the latter.