own true interest; yet it does not follow that fundamental maxims should not be attended to in governing an industrious people. Some of these principles we beg leave to expatiate on.

Fundamental Maxims for an industrious People.

20. Land, to bring forth its increase, must be cultivated by man and beast. It is therefore the duty and interest of the state to rear both man and beast, and in their respective classes to nourish and cherish them.

21. Industry in all shapes, in all instances, and by all means, should be encouraged and protected; indolence, by every possible method rooted out.

All that live must be subsisted. Subsistence costs something. He that is industrious produces by his industry something that is an equivalent, and pays for his subsistence. He is therefore no charge or burden to society. The indolent are an expense, uncompensated.

There can be no doubt but all kinds of employment that can be followed without prejudice from interruptions; work that can be taken up and laid down often in a day, without damage, such as spinning, knitting, weaving, &c., are highly advantageous to a country; because in them may be collected all the produce of those fragments of time that occur in family business, between the constant and necessary parts of it, that usually occupy females; as the time between rising and preparing breakfast, between breakfast and preparing for dinner, &c. The amount of all these fragments is, in the course of a year, very considerable to a single family; to a state proportionably. Highly profitable therefore it is, in this case also, to follow the divine direction, "Gather up the fragments that nothing be lost." *

* Adam Smith's views of the importance of household manufactures coincide with those expressed in this section.-W. PHILLIPS.

Lost time is lost subsistence; it is therefore lost treasure. Hereby, in several families, many yards of linen have been produced from the employment of these fragments only, in one year, though such families were just the same in number as when not so employed.

It was an excellent saying of a certain Chinese emperor, "I will, if possible, have no idleness in my dominions; for, if there be one man idle, some other man must suffer cold and hunger." We take this emperor's meaning to be, that the labor due to the public by each individual, not being performed by the indolent, must naturally fall to the share of others, who must thereby suffer.

22. Whatever can contribute towards procuring from the land, and by industry, a produce wherewith other nations may be supplied, ought highly to be encouraged.

23. Materials wanting in a country to employ its inhabitants, ought by all means to be procured. Gold and silver, those tokens of riches, used as such, and otherwise of little use, are not near so estimable. The bartering of them for such materials is manifestly advantageous.*

24. These, as we apprehend, are incontrovertible principles, on which a wise government will found its resolutions.

25. That the use of the produce of other countries for ideal wants ought to be discouraged, particularly when the produce of the land, or of industry, are not given in exchange for them, has been strongly urged by many. On the grand principle of freedom in trade, we cannot well admit it; for it is plain the luxurious will

This section, and those that follow, particularly the twenty-ninth, show, that the authors of this essay had, before the publication of the "Wealth of Nations," seen the fallacy of the former prejudices that had been in vogue, respecting the expediency of forcing a favorable balance of trade by prohibiting the exportation of specie.-W. PHILLIPS.

use, and the trader, to prosecute his gain, will procure, such foreign produce; nor do prohibitory laws or heavy duties hinder. Nevertheless, to allow for a moment the doctrine, we will remark, that only the establishing it as a mode or fashion amongst the opulent and great can possibly effectuate a disuse or discouragement.

In fact, the produce of other countries can hardly be obtained, unless by fraud or rapine, without giving the produce of our land or our industry in exchange for them. If we have mines of gold and silver, gold and silver may then be called the produce of our land. If we have not, we can only fairly obtain those metals by giving for them the produce of our land or industry. When we have them, they are then only that produce or industry in another shape; which we may give, if the trade requires it, and our other produce will not suit, in exchange for the produce of some other country, that furnishes what we have more occasion for, or more desire. When we have, to an inconvenient degree, parted with our gold and silver, our industry is stimulated afresh to procure more, that by its means we may contrive to procure the same advantage.

In this place it will be proper to observe upon an erroneous doctrine, which has been often strenuously insisted on, that the cheapness of provisions must render manufactures cheap; and that plenty of money conduces to the benefit of trade. We shall endeavour to

prove that industry alone does both.

Trade benefited by Industry more than Money.

26. Providence has wisely ordained, that there should be different occupations and pursuits amongst men, and that the rich and poor should be actuated by different wants, whether real or ideal. It is next to impossible that the rich should be without desires, or wishes for

greater acquisitions; or the poor without being necessitated to acquire what must supply their real wants. If the rich curtail their desires, or wishes, their riches serve, in proportion to their not using them, no more than ore in an unworked mine. If the poor man, by one day's labor can supply his real wants for two days, and sits idle the half of his time, he may be considered in such an idle time, as a monk or a cripple with regard to the community. If a thirst for acquisition move the rich man, he industriously employs all his riches. If the scarcity of provisions compel the poor man to work his whole time, he assuredly, by his industry, must make more manufactures than only working half of it. Hence we conclude, that gain is the first mover, and industry, and the desire of supplying our wants, the intermediate movers, of all intercourse or trade. We however must observe, that a government truly wise should always, as far as the general good allows, be as solicitous to procure plenty of provisions, whereby both man and beast may be kept in good health and strength, as to encourage industry. For industry cannot be sufficiently sustained without the strength arising from plenty of provisions.

The common people do not work for pleasure generally, but from necessity.* Cheapness of provisions makes them more idle; less work is then done; it is then more in demand proportionally; and of course the price rises. Dearness of provisions obliges the

These maxims, and many others in this tract, are to be considered as applicable to European society, particularly to England, where industry is not applied to the profit of the individual who labors; but where one or a few individuals, with large capitals, make a monopoly of the industry of thousands. These thousands, barely subsisted by labor, and, from the scantiness of their reward or wages, never able to reserve a surplus to accumulate for their children or for old age, are ever dependent on their employers; and where labor is the only occupation, and bare existence the only hope, there idleness is an enjoyment.-W. T. F.

manufacturer to work more days and more hours; thus more work is done than equals the usual demand; of course it becomes cheaper, and the manufactures in

consequence.

27. As to plenty of money being a benefit to trade and manufactures, we apprehend every one conversant therein must know that the coin, by which we generally understand money, of every respective state, is by no means the mover of the intercourse or tradings of the world in general. Gold and silver in bullion, or in an uncoined mass, are rather more so; being, in point of value, a merchandise less liable to variation than any other. It is true that coin may be liable, in the fluctuation of trade, to be made a merchandise of; but as, by constant use, the pieces of coin become lighter than their original weight, they thereby are less fit for merchandise. We therefore may say, that coins, in general, can no otherwise be useful, than as the common measure between man and man, as serving to barter against, or exchange for, all kinds of commodities. Certain it is, that coins cannot be ranked amongst those things which are only of real use. Let us therefore suppose pieces of coin to be counters, and, to simplify the matter still more, suppose every manufacturer to have of these counters any sum whatever; will it follow, that any sort of manufacture shall be industriously attended to, or more work done than when no more counters than just enough to barter for the real wants of meat, drink, and clothes, &c., can be procured by labor? Surely no. It must be the desire of supplying our wants, which excites industry as above hinted; that alone sets that trade going, and only can procure plenty of manufactures.

28. It is, nevertheless, the duty of government to stamp coins or counters of different sorts and denominations, so that time, of all things the most precious, be not