CHRISTENING-CHRISTIAN CHARITY.

and 8 canons, 60 students, 40 school-boys, clerks, choristers,' &c. This foundation is now subsisting, though it has undergone considerable modifications. To none of the canonries were any duties assigned by King Henry VIII. From time to time, however, the canonries have been annexed to various university professorships, more particularly one to the professorship of divinity, by King James I.; one to the professorship of Hebrew, by King Charles I.; and one to the professorships of ecclesiastical history and pastoral theology respectively, by Queen Victoria.

following, C. found himself forced to flee for refuge to the Netherlands, and his uncle Fredrick I. (q. v.), the introducer of the Reformation into Denmark, elected king in his place. Encouraged, however, by the Catholic party in the Netherlands, and assisted by Charles V., C. landed successfully in Norway in 1531; but at the battle of Aggerhuus in 1532, he was totally defeated, and made prisoner in the castle at Sonderburg, from which he was liberated after twelve years of confinement. He died 28th January 1559.

CHRISTIAN IV., king of Denmark and Norway, and Duke of Schleswig-Holstein, born in Zealand, 12th April 1577, and elected successor to the throne in 1580. He assumed the sceptre in 1593. From 1610 he carried on a successful war, known as the Kalmarian war, against Charles IX. of Sweden, and his successor, Gustavus Adolphus, which ended in an advantageous peace in 1613. As leader of the Protestants in the Thirty Years' War, C. was not successful. His labours for the improvement of his country, in which he was indefatigable, were, however, most beneficial. He strengthened its mariEast Indies, where he obtained the first possessions; and by restrictions upon the Hanse towns, greatly increased the inland trade of the country. legislative and financial reforms, together with his love and patronage of the arts and sciences, gained for him the esteem of his people, especially of the learned. He died in 1648.

His

Several changes were introduced by the commissioners appointed under 17 and 18 Vict. c. 81. There is now only one sinecure-enjoying canon. When he is off the list, no one may hold a canonry save a professor, the archdeacon, or the sub-dean. The studentships are now 80 in number, and arc, as before, divided into junior and senior studentships, differing considerably as to emolument. All these are now open, the old system of appointment by nomination having been abolished. Three junior students are elected every year at Whitsuntide, and besides these, three are sent up yearly from West-time power; extended its commerce as far as the minster. The senior studentships are also open, with the usual limitations of independent income and conformity. Of these, however, only a third can be held by laymen. The studentships were very poor; the junior about £25, the senior about £80 per annum, but an improvement in this respect has been included among the recent changes. Some valuable exhibitions, however, and 22 benefices, are in the gift of the society. In 1860, there CHRISTIAN VII., king of Denmark, son of were about 800 names on the college books. No Fredrick V. and Louisa of England, born 29th statutes were given to C., owing to the death of January 1749. He succeeded to the throne of his the king having taken place shortly after the final father 14th January 1766, and in the same year foundation of the college. It is, in consequence, married Caroline Matilda, sister of George III. of entirely governed by the orders of the dean and England. The dissipations of his early life had chapter, to the total exclusion of the tutors. To enfeebled his energies, and rendered him unfit for this separation of the governing from the teach-government. The management of the state was, in ing body, as well as to the small value of the consequence, seized by his ministers, with Count studentships, may be ascribed, in great measure, the Bernstorff, who had possessed the entire confidence want of success in the schools, which has, for many of the king's father, at their head. Bernstorff, howyears past, brought discredit on this magnificent ever, was soon forced to retreat before Struensee society. (q. v.), who exercised unbounded influence over the king and his imprudent young queen. But innovations of a despotic tendency, and insults offered to the national feeling, soon drew upon this minister the hatred of the nation. The queen-dowager seeing this, made it an occasion for satisfying her ambitious nature, by attaching herself to the malcontents; and in 1772 she succeeded, with the assistance of her son, Fredrick (b. 1754, d. 1805), in persuading the vacillating king to draw up an order of arrest for Struensee and the young queen. Bernstorff was recalled from Hamburg. The king, who was now incapacitated by mental disease, governed only nominally. In 1784, his son, Fredrick VI. (q. v.), with the queen-mother. C. died 13th March 1808. came to the head of the government, as joint regent

CHRISTENING, a term often used as equivalent to Baptism (q. v.). It is disliked by some, and of course liked by others, as favouring the doctrine of baptismal regeneration; being, indeed, according to its derivation, expressive of the notion that a person is made a Christian in baptism. But, like many other terms, it is frequently employed without reference to its origin, and without any intention of conveying the opinion which it might be strictly held to imply.

CHRISTIAN II., king of Denmark, Norway, and

CHRISTIAN BURIAL. See BURIAL and FELO

DE SE

Sweden, born at Vyborg, in the island of Funen, 2d July 1481. He ascended the throne of Denmark in 1513. Shortly after his marriage in 1515, with a sister of the Emperor Charles V., a young Norwegian peasant-girl, with whom C. was in love, died, or, as it was believed, was murdered. That natural CHRISTIAN CHARITY, KNIGHTS OF THE ferocity, for which C. was surnamed the Angry, ORDER OF, in France. King Henry III. having burst forth most furiously on this occasion. He instituted the order of the Holy Ghost for princes caused the governor of the castle, Torben Oxe, the and persons of distinction, founded the order of suspected murderer, to be beheaded. He afterwards C. C. for the support of maimed officers and declared open war against Sweden, took Stockholm soldiers, who had done good service in the wars. through fraud, and had himself crowned king. But He assigned revenues to the order, drawn from all the cruel vengeance and treachery of C. after this the hospitals in the kingdom. The knights wore event excited the indignation of that country, which, on the left breast an anchored cross embroidered headed by Gustavus Wasa (q. v.), succeeded in driv- on white taffety or satin, with a bordeur of blue ing out the Danes, liberating itself from the yoke of silk, and in the middle of the cross a lozenge of the House of Kalmar, and finally electing Gustavus sky blue charged with a fleur de lis or. The Wasa (in 1523) to the throne. In Denmark, too, the completion of the institution was reserved for aristocracy had risen, and an insurrection in Jutland | Henry IV., who placed it under the charge of the

CHRISTIAN CONNECTION-CHRISTIANITY.

marshals and colonels of France; and by means famous. The manufactures of C. are cotton, oil, of it, many of those who had served their country paper, soap, and bricks. There are also numerous faithfully were enabled to spend the latter portion distilleries and corn-mills. It exports in considerof their lives in peace, and above want. The order formed the germ of that noble hospital the Invalides, which was founded by Louis XIV., and which served as a model for our own hospitals of Chelsea and Greenwich. When the Invalides was founded, the order of C. C. was superseded.

CHRISTIAN CONNECTION, a denomination of Christians which originated about the beginning of the 19th c. in the United States of America, and is diffused over all the states. The name was assumed in avowed dislike to the acknowledgment of any human authority and to sectarian distinctions, and all doctrinal terms of communion were rejected, the Bible being adopted as the only rule of faith, and personal piety made the test of qualification for membership. The Connection soon came to consist, however, almost exclusively of persons denying the divinity of Christ.

CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE, SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING, one of the great religious associations connected with the Church of England, and the oldest of them all. It was founded in 1698, although it did not receive its present name till 1701; and had for its object: 1. To promote and encourage the erecting of charity schools in all parts of England and Wales. 2. To disperse, both at home and abroad, Bibles and tracts of religion; and, in general, to advance the honour of God, and the good of mankind, by promoting Christian knowledge, both at home and in other parts of the world, by the best methods that should offer.' These objects it has never ceased to pursue, chiefly directing its efforts to the British dominions; partaking at once of the nature of an educational association, a Missionary Society, a Bible Society, and a Religious Tract Society; and notwithstanding the operations of other great societies in these several departments of Christian benevolence, its revenue amounts to about £100,000 a year. The Protestant missionaries who laboured in the South of India in last century, were supported chiefly by this society, which has also contributed largely of its funds for

the establishment of Christian schools in that country.

CHRISTIAN NAME. See NAME.

CHRISTIA'NIA, capital of Norway, is situated in the province of Aggerhuus, in a beautiful open valley on the northern side of the Christiania Fiord. Pop. 40,000. C. is the seat of the Norwegian government, the superior courts, and the Storthing. Besides the suburbs of Pipervigen, Hammarsborg, Vaterland, and Groenland, the town consists of G. properly so called (which was laid out by Christian IV. in 1614, in the form of a regular parallelogram of 1000 paces in length and breadth); the Old Town or Opslo, where the bishop resides; and the citadel Aggerhuus, from which the broad straight streets of the town can be fired upon. The most important public buildings are the royal palace, the bank and exchange, the house of representatives or Storthing, the governor's palace, and the cathedral. To these may be added the university, the only one in Norway, which was opened in 1813, and possesses a staff of 21 ordinary, and 9 extraordinary professors. About 650 students attend it annually. This institution contains, besides various scientific collections, a library of about 125,000 books, a botanical garden, and an observatory (in 59° 54′ 42′′ N. lat., and 10° 50′ E. long.). The latter was opened in 1833. C. has also some good schools and learned societies, of which the Society for Northern Antiquities' is

able quantities wood, iron, anchovies, and glasswares. From 600 to 700 ships yearly enter the port (which, however, is covered with ice for four months), and it has a regular steam-boat communication with Gottenburg, Copenhagen, Kiel, and Hull. C., by means of its bay, is connected with Drammen (pop. 10,000), famous for its extensive trade in timber, &c. The scenery of the whole bay is unsurpassed in beauty.

CHRISTIANITY. It is proposed in the present article to give a very brief outline of the system of the Christian religion, and of the evidences by which its truth is established. The principal parts, both of the system and evidences of C., will be found noticed under separate heads.

C. comes to us with a claim to be received as of divine origin. It is no product of the human mind, but has for its author the Being whom it sets before us as the object of worship. It is consequently altogether exclusive; it claims to be deemed the only true religion- the truth'-and admits of no compromise or alliance with any other system. of the Jews and of the patriarchs; it is the same C. cannot be viewed as distinct from the religion has been a change of dispensation only. religion accommodated to new circumstances; there In studying either the system or the evidences of C., we are compelled continually to revert from the New Testament to the Old, and must in some measure trace the history of the true or revealed religion through the previous and preparatory dispensations. The whole system of C. may be regarded as hav. ing its foundation in the doctrine of the Existence of one God. See GOD, EXISTENCE AND ATTRIBUTES Fall (q. v.) of Man. Man is represented as involved OF. Next to this may be placed the doctrine of the in misery by sin (q. v.)—original and actual—and for the service and fellowship of God, obnoxious to individual of the human race as incapacitated the displeasure of God, and liable to punishment in a future and eternal state of being. See PUNISHdoctrine of the ATONEMENT (q. v.) as next claiming MENT, FUTURE. And here we may regard the our attention-a doctrine taught in all the sacrifices (see SACRIFICE) of the patriarchal and Jewish dispensations, as well as by the words of inspired teachers. Man being utterly incapable of effecting his own deliverance from sin and misery, God sent his Son to save sinners, to deliver them from hell, to make them holy, and partakers of the eternal joy and glory of heaven.

every

By those who regard Christ as a mere creature, atonement or reconciliation with God is made to depend on the repentance of man as its immediate cause; whilst the life and death of Christ are represented as merely an example to us of obedience, virtue, and piety in the most trying circumstances; the doctrines of a propitiatory sacrifice, a substitutionary obedience, and an imputed righteousness, with all that form part of the same system, falling completely and even necessarily to the ground. These doctrines, however, are all consistently maintained in connection with the doctrine of the Trinity and the generally received doctrine as to the person of Christ. See CHRIST and TRINITY. The very incarnation (q. v.) of the Son of God is regarded as a glorious display of the divine condescension, and a wonderful exaltation of human nature: whilst a personal enjoyment of the highest dignity and bliss of which humanity is capable in the favour and fellowship of God for ever, is to be attained by faith in Jesus Christ. See FAITH and JUSTIFICATION.

The indissoluble connection between faith and

CHRISTIANITY.

salvation arises from the divine appointment, but secures a moral harmony, as it provides for bringing into operation-in accordance with the intellectual and moral nature of man-of most powerful and excellent motives for all that is morally good, the partakers of salvation being thus fitted for the fellowship of Him into whose favour they are received; and as it prevents the possibility of any of them taking to themselves, or giving to others, the glory of that salvation which they really owe to Christ, and which they must therefore ascribe to Christ, as God is a God of truth, and truth must reign in the kingdom of heaven.

Salvation is ascribed by all Christians to the grace of God. The mission of Christ was an act of supreme grace; and all must be ascribed to grace for which we are indebted to Christ. The doctrine of grace, however, is a part of the system of C. on which important differences subsist, especially as to the relation of the grace of God to individual men. Such are the differences concerning ELECTION (q. v.), and concerning the origin of faith, and man's ability or inability to believe of himself. But by Christians generally, the personal relation of the believer to Christ, and his faith in Christ, are ascribed to the Holy Ghost or Spirit of God, the third person of the Godhead, and so to the grace of God. See ARMINIUS, CALVINISM, and PELAGIUS.

In the view of all who hold the doctrine of the Trinity, the doctrines concerning the Spirit of God form a very important part of the Christian system. To the agency of this person of the Godhead, besides all that is ascribed to Him concerning the human nature of Christ, we are indebted for all that is spiritually good in man; He, in the economy of grace, being sent by God, on the intercession of Christ, to communicate the blessings purchased by Christ in his obedience and death. See HOLY GHOST.

the other, of the love of man, or of ourselves and our neighbours. See LAW, MORAL.

The means of grace, or of the attainment of the blessings of salvation, form an important part of the Christian system. Of these the WORD OF GOD—or divine revelation contained in the Bible (q. v.)—first claims attention, as the means of conversion to Christ, and of edification in Christ, the instrument by which salvation is both begun and carried on in men. The ordinances of God's worship are among the means of grace. Thus Prayer (q. v.) is one of the chief means of grace. The Sacraments (q. v.) are means of grace, concerning the precise use of which, and their relative importance as compared with the other means, considerable difference of opinion prevails among Christians. The same remark applies also to the combination of Christians into an organised body or community, the Church (q. v.), with its own laws or system of churchgovernment (q. v.) and church-discipline (q. v.).

We have endeavoured to sketch the outline of the system of C., as much as possible according to the general belief of Christians, merely indicating the points on which the chief differences of opinion exist. Some of the principal controversies will be found noticed under separate heads.

The truth of C. is established by many different Evidences, distinct and independent, but mutually corroborative. It appeals to reason, and demands to have its claims examined and admitted. Nor is there any faith where there is not a mental conviction arrived at by a process of sound reasoning.

The evidences of C. are very generally divided into two great classes, internal and external-the former consisting of those which are found in the nature of the Christian system itself, and in its adaptation to the nature and wants of man; the latter, of those which are derived from other sources. The boundary between the two classes, Salvation begins on earth; and whenever a man however, is by no means so distinct in reality as it believes in Christ, he is a partaker of it is in a appears in the definition of the terms. Of the state of salvation. It forms an essential part of multitude of books which have been written on the the Calvinistic system, that he who is in a state of subject of the evidences of C., some are devoted salvation always remains so, and that the salvation mainly to one of these classes, and some to the begun on earth is in every case made perfect in other; whilst some are occupied with the developheaven. See PERSEVERANCE OF THE SAINTS. Thus ment of particular evidences or arguments, and salvation is viewed as beginning in REGENERA- some with the refutation of objections, and in partiTION (q. v.), and as carried on in SANCTIFICATION cular of what may be called a preliminary objection (q. v.), and all its joys as connected with the pro--that a divine revelation can never be established gress of sanctification. Faith in Jesus Christ cannot by sufficient evidence at all. See REVELATION. be unaccompanied with repentance, and repentance is always renewed when the exercise of faith is renewed. For although all believers are saints or holy, as set apart to God, and in contrast to what they previously were, yet there is none in this life free from temptation and sin; the successful tempter of our first parents, who assailed our Saviour with temptation and was defeated, being still the active enemy of men, against whom believers in Jesus Christ are called to contend, to watch, and to pray. See DEVIL. The sense of responsibility belongs to human nature; and the doctrine of a Judgment (q. v.) to come may be considered as to a certain extent a doctrine of natural religion, as may also that of the Immortality (q. v.) of the Soul; but the clear and distinct enunciation of these doctrines belongs to the Christian revelation, to which belongs entirely the doctrine of the Resurrection (q. v.) of the Dead.

Of the moral part of C., which has already been referred to, it may be sufficient here to state, that it is as harmonious with the doctrinal as it is inseparable from it; that it is founded upon the attributes of God, and is perfectly illustrated in the character of Jesus Christ; and that it is divisible into two great parts-one, of the love of God, and

The evidence of Miracles (q. v.) and the evidence of Prophecy (q. v.), two of the principal branches of the external evidences of C., will be found noticed in separate articles. Another argument, which has been much elaborated-for example, in Paley's Evidences-is derived from the character and sufferings of the apostles and other first preachers of C.; their high moral worth, considered along with their great earnestness and devotedness; the absence of all possibility of selfish or base motives; and at the same time, their perfect opportunity of knowing the truth of the facts which they proclaimed. A subsidiary argument is found in the admission of the great facts regarding Jesus of Nazareth, by the early opponents of Christianity. A most important and valuable argument is found in the perfect coherence of all the parts of the Christian system, and in the agreement, as to the religion which they teach, of all the books of Scripture, notwithstanding the widely different dates of their composition, and their very different nature in other respects. See BIBLE. The relation of the Jewish ceremonies to the doctrines of C. supplies another argument of this kind, capable of being developed in a multitude of particulars. The minor coincidences between the different books of Scripture have been pointed

CHRISTIAN CONNECTION-CHRISTIANITY.

marshals and colonels of France; and by means famous. The manufactures of C. are cotton, oil, of it, many of those who had served their country paper, soap, and bricks. There are also numerous faithfully were enabled to spend the latter portion distilleries and corn-mills. It exports in considerof their lives in peace, and above want. The order formed the germ of that noble hospital the Invalides, which was founded by Louis XIV., and which served as a model for our own hospitals of Chelsea and Greenwich. When the Invalides was founded, the order of C. C. was superseded.

CHRISTIANITY.

salvation arises from the divine appointment, but secures a moral harmony, as it provides for bringing into operation-in accordance with the intellectual and moral nature of man-of most powerful and excellent motives for all that is morally good, the partakers of salvation being thus fitted for the fellowship of Him into whose favour they are received; and as it prevents the possibility of any of them taking to themselves, or giving to others, the glory of that salvation which they really owe to Christ, and which they must therefore ascribe to Christ, as God is a God of truth, and truth must reign in the kingdom of heaven.

Salvation is ascribed by all Christians to the grace of God. The mission of Christ was an act of supreme grace; and all must be ascribed to grace for which we are indebted to Christ. The doctrine of grace, however, is a part of the system of C. on which important differences subsist, especially as to the relation of the grace of God to individual men. Such are the differences concerning ELECTION (q. v.), and concerning the origin of faith, and man's ability or inability to believe of himself. But by Christians generally, the personal relation of the believer to Christ, and his faith in Christ, are ascribed to the Holy Ghost or Spirit of God, the third person of the Godhead, and so to the grace of God. See ARMINIUS, CALVINISM, and PELAGIUS.

In the view of all who hold the doctrine of the Trinity, the doctrines concerning the Spirit of God form a very important part of the Christian system, To the agency of this person of the Godhead, besides all that is ascribed to Him concerning the human nature of Christ, we are indebted for all that is spiritually good in man; He, in the economy of grace, being sent by God, on the intercession of Christ, to communicate the blessings purchased by Christ in his obedience and death. See HOLY GHOST.

Salvation begins on earth; and whenever a man believes in Christ, he is a partaker of it is in a state of salvation. It forms an essential part of the Calvinistic system, that he who is in a state of salvation always remains so, and that the salvation begun on earth is in every case made perfect in heaven. See PERSEVERANCE OF THE SAINTS. Thus salvation is viewed as beginning in REGENERATION (q. v.), and as carried on in SANCTIFICATION (q. v.), and all its joys as connected with the progress of sanctification. Faith in Jesus Christ cannot be unaccompanied with repentance, and repentance is always renewed when the exercise of faith is renewed. For although all believers are saints or holy, as set apart to God, and in contrast to what they previously were, yet there is none in this life free from temptation and sin; the successful tempter of our first parents, who assailed our Saviour with temptation and was defeated, being still the active enemy of men, against whom believers in Jesus Christ are called to contend, to watch, and to pray. See DEVIL. The sense of responsibility belongs to human nature; and the doctrine of a Judgment (q. v.) to come may be considered as to a certain extent a doctrine of natural religion, as may also that of the Immortality (q. v.) of the Soul; but the clear and distinct enunciation of these doctrines belongs to the Christian revelation, to which belongs entirely the doctrine of the Resurrection (q. v.) of the Dead.

Of the moral part of C., which has already been referred to, it may be sufficient here to state, that it is as harmonious with the doctrinal as it is inseparable from it; that it is founded upon the attributes of God, and is perfectly illustrated in the character of Jesus Christ; and that it is divisible into two great parts-one, of the love of God, and

the other, of the love of man, or of ourselves and our neighbours. Sec LAW, MORAL.

The means of grace, or of the attainment of the blessings of salvation, form an important part of the Christian system. Of these the WORD OF GOD-or divine revelation contained in the Bible (q. v.)-first claims attention, as the means of conversion to Christ, and of edification in Christ, the instrument by which salvation is both begun and carried on in men. The ordinances of God's worship are among the means of grace. Thus Prayer (q. v.) is one of the chief means of grace. The Sacraments (q. v.) are means of grace, concerning the precise use of which, and their relative importance as compared with the other means, considerable difference of opinion prevails among Christians. The same remark applies also to the combination of Christians into an organised body or community, the Church (q. v.), with its own laws or system of churchgovernment (q. v.) and church-discipline (q. v.).

We have endeavoured to sketch the outline of the system of C., as much as possible according to the general belief of Christians, merely indicating the points on which the chief differences of opinion exist. Some of the principal controversies will be found noticed under separate heads.

The truth of C. is established by many different Evidences, distinct and independent, but mutually corroborative. It appeals to reason, and demands to have its claims examined and admitted. Nor is there any faith where there is not a mental conviction arrived at by a process of sound reasoning.

The evidences of C. are very generally divided into two great classes, internal and external-the former consisting of those which are found in the nature of the Christian system itself, and in its adaptation to the nature and wants of man; the latter, of those which are derived from other sources. The boundary between the two classes, however, is by no means so distinct in reality as it appears in the definition of the terms. Of the multitude of books which have been written on the subject of the evidences of C., some are devoted mainly to one of these classes, and some to the other; whilst some are occupied with the development of particular evidences or arguments, and some with the refutation of objections, and in particular of what may be called a preliminary objection -that a divine revelation can never be established by sufficient evidence at all. See REVELATION.

The evidence of Miracles (q. v.) and the evidence of Prophecy (q. v.), two of the principal branches of the external evidences of C., will be found noticed in separate articles. Another argument, which has been much elaborated-for example, in Paley's Evidences-is derived from the character and sufferings of the apostles and other first preachers of C.; their high moral worth, considered along with their great earnestness and devotedness; the absence of all possibility of selfish or base motives; and at the same time, their perfect opportunity of knowing the truth of the facts which they proclaimed. A subsidiary argument is found in the admission of the great facts regarding Jesus of Nazareth, by the early opponents of Christianity. A most important and valuable argument is found in the perfect coherence of all the parts of the Christian system, and in the agreement, as to the religion which they teach, of all the books of Scripture, notwithstanding the widely different dates of their composition, and their very different nature in other respects. See BIBLE. The relation of the Jewish ceremonies to the doctrines of C. supplies another argument of this kind, capable of being developed in a multitude of particulars. The minor coincidences between the different books of Scripture have been pointed