CHLORINE-CHLOROFORM.

CHLOPICKI-CHLORIMETRY.

native of the interior of Chili, living underground like the mole, which it much resembles in its habits, and feeding on the same kind of food. Its fore-feet are adapted for digging, although in a different destitute of sutures; there are resemblances to the

manner from those of the mole.

Chlamyphorus.

The skull is

osteology of birds in the ribs and their union to the
sternum; the hinder part of the body is altogether
unlike that of any other known animal, in its
terminating quite abruptly, as if cut off almost
where its thickness is greatest, or as if the back
were suddenly bent down at right angles, the
tail not springing from where the line of the
The
back appears to terminate, but far below.
whole upper and hinder parts of the body are
covered with a coat of mail, made up of a series of
square plates; the under parts and legs are covered
with long silky hair. The tail is very peculiar ;
it is covered with small scales, is expanded at the
tip, and is usually incurved along the belly, but is
furnished with such muscles as to suggest the pro-
bability of its being employed to throw back the

earth in excavations.

Cracow, and withdrew altogether from public life.
He died at Krzeschowitz, 30th September 1854.

CHLO'RAL (C,C1,HO2) is a body formed when
anhydrous alcohol is acted upon by dry chlorine
gas. It is an oily liquid with a peculiar penetrating

odour.

natural order of
CHLORANTHA'CEÆ, a
exogenous plants, closely allied to the peppers;
herbaceous and half-shrubby plants, with jointed
stems, opposite simple leaves, and minute stipules
between them. The flowers are in terminal spikes,
and are destitute of calyx and corolla, but have each
a small scale or bract. The stamens are lateral;
The
either only one or few, and partly cohering.
ovary is one-celled, immediately crowned with the
stigma; the ovule is pendulous; the fruit a drupe
or one-seeded berry; the embryo naked, not in a
fleshy sac as in the peppers.-The number of known
species is small: all of them are tropical, or natives
of China and Japan. They are generally aromatic,
and some of them, as species of Chloranthus in the
East Indies, and of Hedyosmum in the West Indies
and South America, are used as antispasmodics,
The roots of
stimulants, stomachics, and tonics.
Chloranthus officinalis and C. brachystachys have
been ranked among the most efficacious remedies
in fevers and other diseases requiring continual
and active stimulants, and instances have occurred
of great benefit from their employment during the
prevalence of epidemics in Java. C. inconspicuus is
the CHU-LAN of the Chinese; its leaves, spikes of
flowers, and berries are used by them for imparting
All the teas which
a peculiar fragrance to tea.
have what is called the cowslip flavour owe it to
this plant.

CHLO'RIC ACID (CIO) is a compound of one
atom of chlorine and five atoms of oxygen, and
is generally met with in combination with potash,
as the white crystalline salt, chlorate of potash
(KO,CIO,). This salt is mainly interesting from
the readiness with which it parts with its oxygen
to combustibles, as when thrown on red-hot char-
coal, when it causes violent deflagration. The salt
is employed in the fabrication of certain kinds
of lucifer-matches, which give a slight explosion
when struck. If a crystal of chlorate of potash be
placed on a piece of paper saturated with turpen-
tine, and a drop or two of oil of vitriol added, it
causes the inflaming of the turpentine with explosive
rapidity. The chlorate of potash is also used in
medicine, with the view of imparting oxygen to the
blood.

CHLOPICKI, JOSEPH, a Polish general, and
Dictator of Poland during the revolution of 1830,
was born in Galicia in 1772. He entered the army
in 1787, attracted the notice of Kosciusko during
the first insurrection of the Poles, and after the
storming of Praga, 9th November 1794, when the
hopes of the patriots were extinguished for awhile,
he passed into the service of the new Cisalpine
Republic, and distinguished himself in various battles.
In 1806 when Bonaparte called the Poles to arms,
CHLORIMETRY, or CHLORO'METRY, is
C., among others, obeyed, and fought gallantly at
Eylau and Friedland. He was subsequently sent
by the emperor into Spain, and in 1812 followed him the process of estimating the proportion of available
to Russia, taking part in the bloody engagements chlorine in bleaching powder (q. v.), which may
at Smolensk and Moskwa. After the relics of the vary from 20 to 36 per cent. The process depends
invading force had returned, C. left the imperial upon the great power with which chlorine, in the
service, on account of receiving certain slights in act of being liberated from its compounds, causes
After the oxidation of many substances. The salt gene-
the way of his professional advancement.
the taking of Paris by the allies in 1814, he led back rally used is pure crystallised sulphate of iron,
to Poland the remains of the Polish troops who had which, in its ordinary state, gives a deep blue
fought under Bonaparte, and was well received by colour, with a drop of ferridcyanide of potassium,
the Emperor Alexander, who made him a general of but ceases to do so when it has been fully oxidised,
division. When the second insurrection of the or converted from a proto-salt into a per-salt,
Poles broke out in 1830, C., who foresaw the hope- through the influence of chlorine. It being known
less nature of the attempt, concealed himself; but that 78 grains or parts of sulphate of iron are
the voice of the nation called him forth from his oxidised by 10 grains or parts of chlorine, the mode
hiding-place, and on the 5th December 1830, he was of procedure in C. is as follows: 78 grains of
elected dictator. His moderate views, however, fine crystals of the sulphate of iron are dissolved
involved him in disputes with the extreme patriotic in water slightly acidulated with hydrochloric acid
party, and on the 23d January 1831, he resigned his in a white porcelain basin. A given quanti
office; but, to prove his sincerity, he entered the the bleaching powder-say 50
Polish army as a simple soldier, and took part in in a little tepid water, and in
the murderous battles at Wavre and Grochow. measure-glass called a chlorim
After the suppression of the insurrection, C. went to 2, and 3), similar to an a

310

30

40

CHLORINE CHLOROFORM.

into 100 parts, and water added till the solution
rises to the top mark. After subsidence of the
insoluble matter, the
clear solution is very
gradually poured into the
solution of sulphate of
iron in the basin, the
O whole being kept con-
ostantly stirred, and every
now and again a drop of
20 the iron solution is taken
30 out and placed on a new
drop of ferridcyanide of
potassium placed on a
50 white plate; and when-
ever the iron solution
60
ceases to produce a deep
70 blue, and only forms a
80
light greenish-yellow tint,
it is known that the iron
90 has been fully oxidised
by the chlorine. Suppose
that at this stage the
burette has been emptied
Burettes.
to the 55th division; as
we know that the liquid poured out must have
contained 10 grains of chlorine, we can calculate
the chlorine contained in the whole; for

120

30

40

40

50

50

60

70

70

80

80

90

90

60

3

powerful disinfectant (q. v.). The gas can be condensed by pressure and cold into a transparent dark greenish-yellow limpid liquid, with a specific gravity of 1330 (HO = 1000), which also possesses bleaching properties, and a most powerful odour. On the animal system C. acts, in very minute quantity, by producing a sensation of warmth in the respiratory passages, and increasing the expectoration; in large quantity, by causing spasm of the glottis, violent cough, and a feeling of suffocation. The workmen in chemical manufactories, who get accustomed to the C. in small quantity, are generally stout-at least, lay on fat-but complain of acidity in the stomach, which they correct by taking chalk, and also suffer from the corrosion of their teeth, which are eaten away to stumps. The antidotes to the evil effects of the introduction of C. into the lungs are the inhalation of the vapour of water, alcohol, ether, or chloroform; but the two latter should never be resorted to except under medical supervision.

C. unites with the metals and many other substances to form an extensive class of salts known as chlorides.

CHLORITE (Gr. chloros, green), an abundant mineral, consisting of silica, alumina, magnesia, and protoxide of iron, in somewhat variable proportions. It is of a green colour, rarely occurs crystallised in hexagonal crystals, sometimes foliated like tale. It is rather soft, and is easily broken or scratched with a knife. Before the blowpipe, it is with difficulty fused on thin edges. It is readily distinguished from tale by yielding water in a closed tube.

CHLO'RITE-SCHIST, or CHLORITE-SLATE, a green slaty rock, in which chlorite is abundant in foliated plates, usually blended with minute grains of quartz, and sometimes with felspar or mica. It belongs to the metamorphic rocks, and is often found graduating into gneiss and clay-slate.

CHLORINE (Gr. chloros, pale green) is a nonmetallic element discovered by Scheele in 1774, and named by him dephlogisticated marine air. Afterwards, in 1810, Davy proved it to be an elementary body, and gave it the name which it now bears. CHLOROFORM, or the TERCHLO'RIDE OF In nature it is always found in a state of com- FORMYLE (C,HCI,), was originally discovered bination. United with sodium (Na), it occurs very by Soubeiran, and experimented upon by Dumas, largely as the chloride of sodium (NaCl)-common and was long known only to scientific chemists as salt in the ocean; in large beds, as rock-salt; a rare organic body, possessing interest from being in all natural waters, including even rain-water; one of a series of organic substances, but not known in clays, soils, limestone; in volcanic incrustations; to possess any properties likely to call it into use, or and in the vegetable and animal kingdoms. The even likely to let it be known by name to the preparation of gaseous C. by its liberation, directly general public. The remarkable power, however, or indirectly, from common salt, has been fully which it possesses of producing anesthesia, has described under BLEACHING POWDER, which is the led to the preparation of C. on a very extensive form in which C. is prepared and employed com- scale. The materials employed are alcohol, water, mercially. For experimental purposes, the gas may and bleaching powder, and the proportions are four be received in jars filled with water at the pneu- parts of bleaching powder, to which sufficient water matic trough, when the C. rises into the jar, and is added to make a thin paste, and thereafter one displaces the water. When thus obtained, it is a part of spirits of wine; the whole is introduced yellowish-green gas with a peculiar and suffocating into a capacious retort, which must not be more than odour, is not combustible, and a very feeble sup- half filled, and heat being applied, the C., accomporter of ordinary combustion. A lighted candle panied by water and a little alcohol, distils over. placed in it burns with a very smoky flame, owing As the C. is heavier than water, and is not readily to the hydrogen of the oil alone burning, and the miscible therewith, two layers of liquid are obtained carbon being liberated. Several of the metals, such in the receiver-the upper being water and alcohol, as antimony, copper, and arsenic, in a fine state of and the lower being chloroform. The upper liquid division, or in the condition of thin leaves, at once being cautiously poured off, the C. is agitated with become red hot, and burn when introduced into fused carbonate of potash, which abstracts the the gas. A piece of thin paper soaked in turpentine remaining traces of water, and on subsequent likewise bursta into flame. C. has the symbol Cl, redistillation the C. is obtained pure and ready for the atomic weight or equivalent of 355. It use. very heavy gas, nearly 24 tir Mavier than ,ita specific gravity 2470

soluble in

of C. in on

bling the

The

C. is a highly limpid, mobile, colourless liquid, it is which is volatile, has a characteristic and mes plea m It

an agreeable sweetish taste. vity of nearly 1500 (water= If as heavy again as water, It is not inflammable in the erm, as it will not take fire

CHLOROPHYLL-CHOIR.

CHOCARD, or CHOQUARD (Pyrrhocorax), a genus of birds of the Crow family (Corvida), differing from the Choughs in having a shorter bill, which, however, is arched like theirs, but resembling them in their habits. The only European species is the Alpine C., also called Alpine Chough, and Alpine Crow (P. Pyrrhocorax). It is about the size of a jackdaw, of a brilliant black, with yellowish bill and red feet.

when a light is brought down upon it; but when perish from it, or are much diminished in value. thrown on red-hot coals, it burns with a green Fruit-trees also suffer from it. flame, evolving much smoke. It is slightly soluble in water, but more readily mixes with alcohol and ether. It dissolves camphor, amber, copal, and other resins, wax, caoutchouc, black and red sealing wax, iodine and bromine, as well as strychnine and other alkaloids. Its purity may be determined by placing some on the palm of the hand, and allowing it to evaporate, when no alcoholic or other odorous substance should be even momentarily recognised; and by agitation with oil of vitriol, when, on settling, the C. should readily swim on the surface of the vitriol, and the two layers of liquid remain colourless. The employment of C. as an anesthetic has already been considered under ANÆSTHESIA; but it may be here repeated, that C. is a substance that cannot be too cautiously dealt with, and that it should never be administered except in the presence and by the sanction of a medical practitioner. When skilfully given, it is the safest of all anesthetics, and the greatest boon that chemistry has bestowed on suffering humanity.

CHLOROPHYLL (Gr. chloros, green, and phyllon, a leaf), the substance to which the leaves and other parts of plants owe their green colour. It is somewhat analogous to wax, is soluble in alcohol and ether, but insoluble in water, and floats in the fluid of the cells, in the form of minute granules. Light is indispensable to its formation, and hence arises the familiar phenomenon of Blanching (q. v.), either from accidental causes, or by the art of the gardener. Young leaves do not exhibit so deep a green as those which have been longer exposed to the light; and the green of a leaf generally deepens till it begins to change into the tints of autumn. Hydra viridis, and other minute animals, appear to owe their green colour to a substance analogous to chlorophyll.

CHLO'ROPS. See CORN-FLY and WHEAT-FLY. CHLORO'SIS (Gr. chloros, pale green), a peculiar form of anæmia or bloodlessness, common in young women, and connected with the disorders incident to the critical period of life. It has been called the green sickness, from the peculiar dingy greenish-yellow hue of the complexion; the green colour, however, is not always characteristic. The disease is attended with very great debility, and often with breathlessness, palpitation, and other distressing, or even alarming symptoms. When there is no organic disease present, however, C. may be pronounced curable in a large proportion of cases. The principal means to be employed are air, exercise, often salt-water baths, the use of iron, with a nutritious and rather stimulating diet, and purgatives if required; together with such special remedies as are adapted for restoring deficient secretions, and bringing the entire female system of organs into a

natural condition.

CHLORO'SIS, a diseased state of plants, in which a sickly green or greenish-yellow colour takes the place of the natural lively hue. Sometimes only a particular shoot is affected by it, but very generally the whole plant; and it seems to depend upon causes which render the plant altogether unhealthy, the pallid appearance being merely symptomatic, and not only the formation of chlorophyll, but all the functions of vegetable life being languidly and imperfectly carried on. Bad seed, damp soil, and cold wet weather, appear to be the most common causes of chlorosis. Plants affected by this disease are often to be seen among crops generally healthy; but whole crops of grain, potatoes, &c., sometimes

ship-board to aid in the support of various articles. CHOCKS are pieces of wood employed on Amongst them are anchor-chocks, rudder-chocks, boat-chocks, stow-wood chocks, and chocks to support the ends of the beams.

CHO'CO, a bay and province of New Granada, in South America.-1. The bay, forming part of the Gulf of Darien, receives the Atrato (q. v.), a stream of note in connection with inter-oceanic communication. Its lat. and long, are about 3° 30′ N., and 77° 30′ W.-2. The province forms the west portion of the department of Cauca (q. v.).

CHO'COLATE is made from the seeds of Theo

broma Cacao (see Cocoa), reduced to a fine paste in a heated iron mortar, or by a machine, and mixed with pounded sugar and spices, as cinnamon, cloves, cardamom, vanilla, &c. The paste is then poured into moulds of white iron, in which it is allowed to cool and harden. C. is sometimes made without spices, but is then more generally called Cocoa. The paste is sometimes mixed with flour, and with Carrageen or with Iceland Moss; and for medicinal purposes with cinchona, &c. C. is used as a beverage, and for this purpose is dissolved in hot water or milk. Sometimes the yolk of an egg is added, and sometimes it is dissolved in soup or wine. It is also employed in making certain liqueurs. In a pure state, it soon satisfies the appetite, and is very nourishing; when it contains spices, it is also stimulating. Good C. is externally smooth, firm, and shiningnot gritty in the fracture-easily soluble, aromatic; not viscid after having been liquefied and cooled, but oily on the surface, and leaves no sediment of foreign substances. C. is adulterated in many ways, by mixing it with rice-meal, oatmeal, flour, potato-starch, roasted hazel-nuts or almonds, and with benzoin, storax, &c., in place of vanilla. The Mexicans, from time immemorial, were accustomed to prepare a beverage from roasted and pounded cocoa, dissolved in water, and mixed with maizemeal and spices. This they called Chocolatl (choco, cocoa, and latl, water). From the Americans, the Spaniards derived an acquaintance with C., and by them it was introduced into Europe in 1520. C. is used in South America, Spain, and Italy, more than in other parts of the world, although it is used to a considerable extent in Germany. Its use in Britain has given place in a great measure to that of the simpler cocoa.

CHOCOLATE ROOT. See GEUM.

CHOIR (Lat. chorus). In its literal sense, the C. is the portion of the church devoted to the singers; and in all descriptions which concern the ritual it is so limited, including only the space from the western door or screen to the end of the stalls, whilst the part from the stalls eastward to the highaltar is called the presbytery. But in ordinary language, and even as used by architects, it denotes the entire space which is enclosed for the performance of the principal part of the service. In this sense, it includes the C. proper and the presbytery, and corresponds to the chancel in parish churches. Where the church is cruciform, and the term is confined to the eastern limb, it comes to be entirely different

CHOIR-SCREEN-CHOLERA.

from the C. in the ritual sense, or the stall-place, CHOKING, the obstruction of the gullet, or of which in such a building is commonly situated either under the tower or in the nave. In large churches, the aisle generally runs along each side of the C., and frequently passes across the east end of it; an arrangement which is very common in the larger churches of the continent which have polygonal or semicircular terminations.-C. is also the name given to the singers of the choral service.

the passage leading to it, by morsels of food imper-
fectly chewed, or other substances accidentally
swallowed. The consequences of C. in the human
subject are serious, and will be best considered in
connection with the parts concerned. See PHARYNX
and ESOPHAGUS. What follows relates to the C. of
cattle.
Causes.-These may be classified under two

heads

CHOIR-SCREEN, or CHOIR-WALL, the screen 1. Those that depend on the material or wall which divides the choir and presbytery from swallowed; and 2. Those that depend on the the side aisles. It is often very richly ornamented. animal swallowing. Under the first head we find sharp-pointed objects which become fixed into or CHOISEUL-AMBOISE, ETIENNE FRANÇOIS, DUC DE, minister of Louis XV., was born June entangled in the membrane lining the throat and gullet; solid masses too large to pass on to the 18, 1719, educated by the Jesuits, and on the stomach; dry farinaceous materials which clog in completion of his studies, entered the army. He the passage. The second class of causes consists fought bravely in the Austrian Wars of Succes-in inflammation of the throat, or irritation of the sion; but only after he had attracted the fancy organs of deglutition; constrictions of the passage, of the king's mistress, Madame Pompadour, did as in crib-biting horses; ulceration of the sofortune also really favour him. Through the phagus, which is apt to run after C., and is the influence of Madame Pompadour, he was made cause of a relapse; lastly, without any disease of lieutenant-general in 1748, ambassador to the the deglutating organs, an animal may be choked courts of Rome and Vienna in 1756, and Duc de by eating too greedily, and imperfectly masticating or salivating its food.

Choiseul in 1758. C. now became instrumental in
bringing about a family league of the Bourbon
monarchs in Europe; and in 1763, at the close of
the war
so disastrous to the French arms, he
obtained, by his prudence and dexterity, milder
terms for his nation than had been expected. This
made him very popular, as did also his suc-
cessful attempt to overthrow the Jesuits. In 1764,
Madame Pompadour died, but the power of C. con-
tinued unabated. He conceived, and almost carried
out, a plan for the formal emancipation of the
Gallican Church from papal influence, paid great
attention to the improvement of the army and
navy, developed the trade and industry both of the
nation and of the colonies, and opened up anew an
intercourse with India, whose native princes were
assisted by French officers in their endeavours to
expel the British from the peninsula. He had
spies in every European court, and so ruled all
diplomatic and political cabals, that the Empress
of Russia, who dreaded him, called him Le Cocher
de l'Europe (The Driver of Europe'). But the
rise of Madame Dubarry, who succeeded Madame
Pompadour in the royal affections, gradually alien-
ated Louis from his able minister, and in 1770 he
retired to his magnificent estate of Chanteloup,
where he lived in princely splendour. After the
accession of Louis XVI., C. received permission
to return to Paris. He was often consulted, but
never recovered his official position. He died May
7, 1785.

CHOKE-CHERRY, a name given to certain
nearly allied species of Cherry (q. v.), of the Bird-
cherry section of the genus or sub-genus, natives
of North America, having small fruit in racemes,
and the fruit at first rather agreeable, but after-
wards astringent in the mouth. Some confusion
has long existed as to the different kinds, and their
botanical names (Prunus or Cerasus Virginiana,
serotina, and borealis) are not more determinate
than the popular ones. Perhaps they ought to be
regarded as mere varieties rather than distinct
species. They have a considerable resemblance
to the Portugal Laurel, although the leaves are
deciduous. The bark is used as a febrifuge and
tonic, under the name of Wild Cherry Bark; and
by distilling it with water, a volatile oil is obtained
from it associated with hydrocyanic acid, called Oil
of Wild Cherry. This bark allays nervous irritation,
and is particularly suitable as a first tonic in cases
of recovery from fever or inflammation.
CHO'KE-DAMP. See CARBONIC ACID.

of the obstruction. If high up in the pharynx, the Symptoms.-These vary according to the position animal cannot swallow, evinces great distress, and attempts to cough up the object. Saliva drivels from the mouth, the animal chews, and makes an occasional ineffectual effort to swallow. The breathing is very greatly disturbed. In some cases a large lump of food has become fixed in the larynx or upper part of the windpipe, and has suddenly suffocated the animal. When the obstruction is in the course of the gullet down the neck, the symptoms are very similar, though less urgent, and there is additionally the local sign of swelling, with the peculiar hardness or softness of the substance indicating its nature. When an animal is choked by a substance lodging in the gullet within the chest, the symptoms are more mysterious, and likely to mislead. The animal swallows; a considerable quantity of liquid may enter the gullet, but it is suddenly regurgitated or thrown up, as in the act of vomiting. The distress is great; and in the course of three or four days, unless the animal is relieved, it dies of prostration. In the ox, sheep, and goat, the most alarming symptoms, in any case of C., arise from the paunch becoming distended by gas. This condition will be treated under the head HOVE.

Treatment.-Remove the obstruction with the hand, when you can. Cause the animal to swallow the substance, if possible, by giving it water or oil. Carefully push the offending agent down by a

Probang.

In

probang, if it is possible to effect this, and if
withdrawal by the mouth is impracticable.
some cases, the gullet has to be cut into by a
qualified surgeon. After a case of C., keep the
animal on soft food, and attend to its general
health, in order to avoid a relapse, which is of
frequent occurrence in cattle.

CHO'LERA, a Greek term used in the Hippocratic writings, but of indeterminate etymology,