12. When the word not comes between an indicative, imperative, or subjunctive mood, and an infinitive verb, it is almost always taken with the word it follows.

13. From the time of Wycliffe to the time of Sir Thomas More, tnere was a minute distinction between yea, nay, and yes, no. Yea and nay answered affirmative questions; as,

Yes and no answered negative questions; as,

'Will he not come?' Answ. 'Yes,' or 'No.'

CHAPTER VI.

FIGURES OF SPEECH.

1. Definition. FIGURES OF SPEECH are peculiar forms of expression-recognised deviations from the ordinary forms, grammat ical constructions, and literal meanings of words and phrases.

2. According to this definition we ought to divide Figures of Speech into Figures of Orthography, Figures of Syntax, and Figures of Rhetoric. For general purposes it will be better to consider the last two divisions as one, so as to have but two classes, (i) Grammatical or Etymological Figures; (ii) Figures of Speech.

3. Etymological Figures are modes whereby words undergo change, especially in process of formation or derivation.

4. These Figures are―

(i) Syncope, whereby a word is abbreviated; as, lord for hlaf-ord.

(ii) Metathesis, whereby letters in the same word are interchanged; as, nostrils for nose-thirles; brunt, for burnt; brid for bird.

5. Three are ADDITIVE:

(i) Prothesis, whereby a letter or syllable is added to the beginning of a word; as, espy for spy.

(ii) Epenthesis, whereby the insertion of a letter or letters, or a syllable, is made in the middle of a word; as, furth-er for far-rer.

(iii) Paragoge, whereby an addition of a letter or letters is made to the end of a word; as, soun-d from son.

6. Three are SUBTRACTIVE:—

1. Apheresis, whereby a letter or syllable is taken from the beginning of a word; as, uncle from av-uncle.

2. Elision, whereby a withdrawal is made from the middle of a word; as, muster from mo-n-strare.

3. Apocope, whereby a letter or syllable is taken from the end of a word; as, sue from suivre.

7. Figures of Speech are peculiar forms of expression.

(i) Pleonasm is redundancy of expression; as,
'I know thee, stranger, who thou art.'

(ii) Ellipsis is deficiency of expression; as,

'She went to St. Paul's,' i. e. 'cathedral.'

(iii) Personification is a figure of speech whereby we clothe qualities or inanimate objects with the attributes of life; as,

'Hope spread her wings, and flew away.' (iv) Simile is the comparison of two ideas, and corresponds to a ratio; as,

'Youth is like the spring.'

(v) Metaphor (transference of ideas) is the comparison of ratios or relations of ideas, and corresponds to a proportion; as,

'Youth is the spring of life;'

drawn out thus:

Youth life spring: year,

Sometimes the combination of the extremes gives us one metaphor, and the combination of the means another; thus, we talk of the 'spring of life,' and of the 'youth of the year.'

(vi) Synecdoche, whereby we use part for the whole, and vice versa; as,

'Ten sail appeared off our port.'

Here sail is used for ships.

(vii) Metonomy is the use of cause for effect, or vice versâ; or the symbol for the thing signified; as,

'Flee the bottle,' i. e. 'the contents thereof.'

(viii) Hyperbole is exaggeration; as,

'They built a tower to reach up to Heaven!' i. e. 'very high.' (ix) Meiosis is lessening or weakening the force of an expres

sion; as,

'George is not very industrious,' i. e. 'he is very idle.'
(x) Antithesis compares things contrary or different; as,
'Though deep, yet clear.'

8. Besides these, Latham gives two more, which he calls convertibility and zeugma.

1. Convertibility is the use of one part of speech for another, and is either,

(a) Etymological, or permanent; as, seldom, now always an adverb, formerly an old dative.

(b) Syntactical, or temporary; as, the use of the infinitive for the noun.

2. Zeugma, whereby a verb, &c., applicable to only one clause, does duty for two; as,

'They wear a garment like the Scythians, but a language peculiar to themselves.'-Sir J. Mandeville.

If this were tolerated, much bad grammar would find shelter under Zeugma !

CHAPTER VII.

CRITICISMS AND CAUTIONS.

§ 1. Usage.

THE subject-matter of the following chapter is chiefly based on Dr. Crombie's English Etymology and Syntax, and on the works of Dr. Angus, of Mr. Washington Moon, and of Archbishop Trench. References made to these authors are characterised by the letters Cr., A., M., Tr.

1. LANGUAGE is antecedent to Grammar. Law and general principles are necessary before rules can be deduced from them. To deduce these rules is the province of the grammarian, and the law of a language to which he must make his appeal is usage.

2. The usage which gives law to a language, and which is generally denominated good usage, must be reputable, national, and present.

3. The following CANONS are laid down to guide us in retaining or preferring certain words or phrases :

CANON I. When the usage is divided as to any particular

words or phrases, and when one of the expressions is
susceptible of a different meaning, while the other ad-
mits only one signification, the expression which is
strictly univocal should be preferred.

EXAMPLES.-Aught for 'anything' is preferable to ought.
Scarcely, as an adverb, is better than scarce.

CANON II. In doubtful cases, analogy should be regarded.
EXAMPLE.-Contemporary is better than cotemporary.

CANON III. When expressions are in other respects equal,
that should be preferred which is most agreeable to the

ear.

CANON IV. When none of the preceding rules takes place, regard should be had to simplicity; thus, to accept, approve, admit, are preferable to accept of, approve of, admit of.

4. The following Canons regulate the decisions of grammar with reference to the rejection of phraseology which may be deemed objectionable:

CANON I. All words and phrases particularly harsh, and not absolutely necessary, should be dismissed; as, shamefacedness, unsuccessfulness, wrongheadedness.

CANON II. When the etymology plainly points to a different signification from what the word bears, propriety and simplicity require its dismissal. For example, the word beholden taken for obliged, and unloose for untie, should be rejected.

CANON III. When words become obsolete, or are never used

but in particular phrases, they should be repudiated, as they give the style the air of vulgarity and cant, and their general disuse renders them obscure. EXAMPLE. By dint of argument; I had as lief go; a moot point, &c.

CANON IV. All words and phrases which, analysed grammatically, include a solecism, should be dismissed; as, I had rather go; which should be, I would rather go. CANON V. All expressions which, according to the established rules of the language, either have no meaning, or involve a contradiction, or according to the fair construction of the words convey a meaning different from the intention of the speaker, should be dismissed; such as, he sings a good song, i. e. he sings well.

5. These Canons taken from Campbell on Rhetoric, Dr. Crombie has fully explained in his excellent work.