shaken; till having made itself a passage, it another reason is, the paucity of pyrites in spends itself in a volcano, or burning moun- England. tain. But to come nearer to the point. Dr. Lister is of opinion, that the material cause of thunder, lightning, and earthquakes, is one and the same, viz. the inflammable breath of the pyrites, which is a substantial sulphur, and takes fire of itself. The difference between these three terrible phenomena, he takes only to consist in this; that this sulphur, in the former, is fired in the air; and in the latter under ground: which is a notion that Pliny had long before him: Quidenim, says he, aliud est in terra tremor, quam in nube tonitru? This he thinks abundantly indicated by the same sulphurous smell being found in any thing burnt with lightning; and in the waters, &c. cast up in earthquakes, and even in the air before and after them. Add, that they agree in the manner of the noise; which is carried on, as in a train, fired; the one rolling and rattling through the air, takes fire as the vapours chance to drive; as the other fired under ground, in like manner, moves with a desultory noise. Thunder, which is the effect of the trembling of the air, caused by the same vapours dispersed through it, has force enough to shake our houses; and why may not there be thunder and lightning under ground, in some vast repositories there, I see no reason. Especially if we reflect, that the matter which composes the noisy vapour above us, is in much larger quantities under ground. That the earth abounds in cavities, every body allows; and that these subterraneous cavities, are, at certain times, and in certain seasons, full of inflammable vapours, the damps in mines sufficiently witness, which fired, do every thing as in an earthquake, save in a lesser degree. Add, that the pyrites alone, of all the known minerals, yields this inflammable vapour, is highly probable for that no mineral or ore, whatsoever, is sulphurous, but as it is wholly, or in part, a pyrites; and that there is but one species of brimstone, which the pyrites naturally and only yields. The sulphur vive, or natural brimstone, which is found in and about the burning mountains, is certainly the effects of sublimation; and those great quantities of it said to be found about the skirts of volcanoes, is only an argument of the long duration and vehemence of those fires; possibly, the pyrites of the volcanoes, or burning-mountains, may be more sulphurous than ours: and indeed it is plain, that some of ours in England are very lean, and hold but little sulphur; others again very much; which may be one reason why England is so little troubled with earthquakes; and Italy, and almost all round the Mediterranean sea, so very much: though Comparing our earthquakes, thunder and lightning with theirs, it is observed, that there it lightens almost daily, especially in summer-time, here seldom; there thunder and lightning is of long duration, here it is soon over; there the earthquakes are frequent, long and terrible, with many paroxysms in a day, and that for many days; here very short, a few minutes, and scarce perceptible. To this purpose the subterraneous caverns in England are small and few compared to the vast vaults in those parts of the world; which is evident from the sudden disappearance of whole mountains and islands. Dr. Woodward gives us another theory of earthquakes. He endeavours to show, that the subterraneous heat, or fire (which is continually elevating water out of the abyss, to furnish the earth with rain, dew, springs and rivers) being stopped in any part of the earth, and so diverted from its ordinary course, by some accidental glut or obstruction in the pores or passages, through which it used to ascend to the surface; becomes, by such means, preternaturally assembled in a greater quantity than usual into one place, and therefore causeth a great rarefaction and intumescence of the water of the abyss; putting it into great commotions and disorders, and at the same time making the like effort on the earth; which being expanded upon the face of the abyss, occasions that agitation and concussion we call an earthquake. This effort in some earthquakes, he observes is so vehement, that it splits and tears the earth, making cracks and chasms in it some miles in length, which open at the instant of the shock, and close again in the intervals betwixt them: nay, it is sometimes so violent, that it forces the superincumbent strata, breaks them all throughout, and thereby perfectly undermines, and ruins the foundation of them; so that these failing, the whole tract, as soon as the shock is over, sinks down into the abyss, and is swallowed up by it; the water thereof immediately rising up and forming a lake in the place, where the said tract before was. That this effort being made in all directions indifferently, the fire dilating and expanding on all hands, and endeavouring to get room, and make its way through all obstacles, falls as foul on the waters of the abyss beneath, as on the earth above, forcing it forth, which way soever it can find vent or passage, as well through its ordinary exits, wells, springs, and the outlets of rivers, as through the chasms then newly opened; through the camini or spiracles of Etna, or other neighbouring volcanoes; and these hiatus's at the bottom of the sea, whereby the abyss below opens into it and communicates with it. That as the water resident volcano. That therefore there are scarce any countries much annoyed by earthquakes, but have one of these fiery vents; which are constantly in flames when any earthquake happens; as disgorging that fire, which whilst underneath was the cause of the disaster. Lastly, that were it not for these diverticula, it would rage in the bowels of the earth much more furiously, and make greater havoc than it doth. We have seen what fire and water may do, and that either of them are sufficient for all the phenomena of earthquakes; if they should both fail, we have a third agent, scarce inferior to either of them: the reader must not be surprised when we tell him it is air. in the abyss is, in all parts of it, stored with a considerable quantity of heat, and more especially in those where those extraordinary aggregations of this fire happen, so likewise is the water which is thus forced out of it; insomuch that when thrown forth and mixed with the waters of wells or springs of rivers, and the sea, it renders them very sensibly hot. He adds, that though the abyss be liable to those commotions in all parts; yet the effects are no where very remarkable except in those countries which are mountainous, and consequently stony or cavernous underneath; and especially where the disposition of the strata is such, that those caverns open into the abyss, and so freely admit and entertain the fire; which assembling therein is the cause Mons. Amontons, in the Memoires de of the shock: it naturally steering its course l'Acad. des Sciences, An. 1703, has an express that way where it finds the readiest recep- discourse to prove, that on the foot of the new tion, which is towards those caverns. Besides, experiments of the weight and spring of the that those parts of the earth which abound air, a moderate degree of heat may bring the with strata of stone or marble, making the air into a condition capable of causing earth, strongest opposition to this effort, are the quakes. It is shown, that at the depth of nost furiously shattered; and suffer much 43,528 fathoms below the surface of the earthmore by it, than those which consist of gravel air is only one fourth less heavy than mercury. sand, and the like laxer matter, which more Now, this depth of 43,528 fathoms is only a easily give way, and make not so great re- 74th part of the semi-diameter of the earth. sistance; but, above all, those countries which And the vast sphere beyond this depth, in diyield great store of sulphur and nitre, are, by ameter 6,451,538 fathoms, may probably be far, the most injured by earthquakes; those only filled with air; which will be here greatly minerals constituting in the earth a kind of condensed, and much heavier than the heavinatural gunpowder, which taking fire upon est bodies we know in nature. But it is found this assemblage, and approach of it, occasions by experiment, that the more air is compressed that murmurring noise, that subterraneous the more does the same degree of heat inthunder, which is heard rumbling in the bow-crease its spring, and the more capable does els of the earth during earthquakes, and by the assistance of its explosive power, renders the shock much greater, so as sometimes to make miserable havoc and destruction. And it is for this reason, that Italy, Sicily, Anatolia, and some parts of Greece, have been so long, and often alarıned and harassed by earthquakes; these countries being all mountainous and cavernous, abounding with stone and marble, and affording sulphur and nitre in great plenty. it render it of a violent effect and that, for instance, the degree of heat of boiling water increases the spring of the air above what it has in its natural state, in our climate, by a quantity equal to a third of the weight wherewith it is pressed. Whence we may conclude, that a degree of heat, which on the surface of the earth, will only have a moderate effect, may be capable of a very violent one below. And as we are assured, that there are in nature degrees of heat, much more considerable than that of boiling water: it is very possible there may be some, whose violence, further assisted by the exceeding weight of the air, may be more than sufficient to break and overturn this solid orb of 43,528 fathoms; whose weight, compared to that of the included air, would be but a trifle. Further, that Ætna, Vesuvius, Hæcla, and the other volcanoes, are only so many spiracles, serving for the discharge of this subter raneous fire, when it is thus preternaturally assembled. That where there happens to be such a structure and conformation of the interior parts of the earth; as that the fire may pass freely, and without impediment, from the Chemistry furnishes us a method of makcaverns wherein it assembles unto those spi-ing artificial earthquakes, which shall have racles: it then readily and easily gets out from time to time, without shaking or disturbing the earth: but where such communication is wanting, or passage not sufficiently large and open, so that it cannot come at the spiracles, it heaves up and shocks the earth with greater or lesser impetuosity, according to the quantity of fire thus assembled, till it has made its way to the mouth of the all the great effects of natural ones: which, as it may illustrate the process of nature in the production of these terrible phenomena under ground, we shall here add. To twenty pounds of iron filings, add as many of sulphur: mix, work, and temper the whole together with a little water, so as to form a mass, half moist and half dry. This being buried three or four feet under ground, in six or seven hours time, will have a prodigious | Fa. Anthon. Serovita, being on his way thither, effect the earth will begin to tremble, crack and at the distance of a few miles, observed a and smoke, and fire and flame burst through. black cloud, like night, hovering over the city; Such is the effect even of the two cold bo- and there arose from the mouth of Mongibeldies, in cold ground: there only wants a suf-lo, great spires of flame, which spread all ficient quantity of this mixture to produce a around. The sea all of a sudden began to roar, true Etna. If it were supposed to burst out and rise in billows; and there was a blow, as under the sea, it would produce a spout. And if all the artillery in the world had been at if it were in the clouds, the effect would be once discharged. The birds flew about astothunder and lightning. nished, the cattle in the fields ran crying, &c. His and his companion's horse stopped short, trembling; so that they were forced to alight. An earthquake is defined to be a vehement shake, or agitation of some considerable place, or part of the earth; from natural causes; at-They were no sooner off, but they were lifted tended with a huge noise like thunder, and frequently with an eruption of water, or fire, or smoke, or winds, &c. They are the greatest and most formidable phenomena of nature. Aristotle and Pliny distinguish two kinds, with respect to the manner of the shake, viz. a tremor and a pulsation; the first being horizontal, in alternate vibrations, compared to the shaking of a person in ague. The second perpendicular, up and down, their motion resembling that of boiling. Agricola increases the number, and makes four kinds, which Alb. Magnus again reduces to three, viz. inclination, when the earth librates alternately from right to left; by which mountains have been sometimes brought to meet, and clash against each other: pulsation, when it beats up and down like an artery: and trembling, when it shakes and totters every way, like a flame. The Philosophical Transactions furnish us with abundance of histories of earthquakes; particularly one at Oxford, in 1665, by Dr. Wallis and Mr. Boyle. Another at the same place in 1683, by Mr. Pigot. Another in Sicily, in 1692-3 by Mr. Hartop, Fa. Allessandro Burgos, and Vin. Bonajutus, which last is one of the most terrible ones in all history. from the ground above two palms; when casting his eyes towards Catanea, he with amazement saw nothing but a thick cloud of dust in the air. This was the scene of their calamity: for of the magnificent Catanea, there is not the least footstep to be seen. S. Bonajutus assures us, that of 18,914 inhabitants, 18,000 perished therein. The same author, from a computation of the inhabitants, before and after the earthquake, in the several cities and towns, finds that near 60,000 perished out of 254,900. Jamaica is remarkable for earthquakes. The inhabitants, Dr. Sloan informs us, expect one every year. That author gives us the history of one in 1687: another horrible one in 1692, is described by several anonymous authors. In two minutes time it shook down and drowned nine tenths of the town of Port Royal. The houses sunk outright, thirty or forty fathoms deep. The earth opening, swallowed up people; and they rose in other streets; some in the middle of the harbour, and yet were saved; though there were 2000 people lost, and 1000 acres of land sunk. All the houses were thrown down throughout the island. One Hopkins had his plantation removed half a mile from its place. Of all wells, from one fathom to six or seven, the water flew out at the top with a vehement motion. While the houses, on the one side of the It shook the whole island; and not only that, but Naples and Malta shared in the shock. It was of the second kind mentioned by Aris-street were swallowed up, on the other they totle and Pliny, viz. a perpendicular pulsation, or succession. It was impossible, says the noble Bonajutus, for any body, in this country, to keep on their legs, on the dancing earth; nay, those that lay on the ground, were tossed from side to side, as on a rolling billow high walls leaped from their foundations several paces. were thrown on heaps; and the sand in the street rose like waves in the sea, lifting up every body that stood on it, and immediately dropping down into pits; and at the same instant, a flood of waters breaking in, rolled them over and over; some catching hold of beams and rafters, &c. Ships and sloops in the harbour were overset and lost; the Swan The mischief it did is amazing: almost all frigate particularly, by the motion of the sea, the buildings in the countries were thrown and sinking of the wharf, was driven over down. Fifty-four cities and towns, besides an the tops of many houses. It was attended incredible number of villages, were either de- with a hollow rumbling noise like that of stroyed or greatly damaged. We shall only thunder. In less than a minute three quarinstance the fate of Catanea, one of the most ters of the houses, and the ground they stood famous, ancient, and flourishing cities in the on with the inhabitants, were all sunk quite kingdom; the residence of several monarchs, under water; and the little part, left behind, and an university. This once famous, now was no better than a heap of rubbish. The unhappy Catanea, to use the words of Fa. shake was so violent, that it threw people Burgos, had the greatest share in the tragedy. | down on their knees, or their faces, as they VOL. II.... 3 M 39 Public Men.-From the Pennsylvania Gazette, No. 95, September 3, 1730. THE following is a dialogue between Socrates, the great Athenian philosopher, and one Glaucon a private man of mean abilities, but ambitious of being chosen a senator, and of governing the republic; wherein Socrates, in a pleasant manner, convinces him of his incapacity for public affairs, by making him sen country, in their several branches, and entirely dissuades them from any attempt of that nature. There is also added, at the end, part of another dialogue, the same Socrates had with one Charmidas, a worthy man, but too modest, wherein he endeavours to persuade him to put himself forward and undertake public business, as being very capable of it. The whole is taken from Xenophon's Memorable Things of Socrates, lib. 3. were running about for shelter. The ground England in 1703, by Mr. Thoresby or lastly heaved and swelled like a rolling sea, and those in New England in 1663, and 1670, by several houses still standing, were shuffled Dr. Mather. and moved some yards out of their places. A whole street is said to be twice as broad now as before; and in many places the earth would crack, and open, and shut, quick and fast. Of which openings, two or three hundred might be seen at a time: in some whereof, the people were swallowed up; others, the closing earth caught by the middle, and pressed to death; in others, the heads only appeared. The larger openings swallowed up houses; and out of some would issue whole rivers of waters, spouted up a great height in-sible of his ignorance of the interests of his to the air, and threatening a deluge to that part the earthquake spared. The whole was attended with stenches and offensive smells, the noise of falling mountains at a distance, &c. and the sky in a minute's time, was turned dull and reddish, like a glowing oven.Yet, as great a sufferer as Port Royal was, more houses were left standing therein, than on the whole island beside. Scarce a planting house, or sugar work was left standing in all Jamaica. A great part of them were swallowed up, houses, people, trees, and all at one gap in lieu of which afterwards, appeared great pools of water, which when driven up, left nothing but sand, without any mark that ever tree or plant had been thereon. Above twelve miles from the sea, the earth gaped and spouted out, with a prodigi-suade him from that design. But Socrates ous force, vast quantities of water into the had a kindness for him, on account of Plato air: yet the greatest violences were among his brother, and he only it was who made him the mountains and rocks: and it is a general change his resolution; he met him, and acopinion, that the nearer the mountains, the costed him in so winning a manner, that he greater the shake; and that the cause there- first obliged him to hearken to his discourse. of lay there. Most of the rivers were stop- He began with him thus: You have a mind ped up for twenty-four hours, by the falling then to govern the republic? I have so, anof the mountains, till swelling up, they found swered Glaucon. You cannot, replied Socra themselves new tracts and channels, tearing tes, have a more noble design; for if you can up in their passage trees, &c. After the accomplish it so as to become absolute, you great shake, those people who escaped, got will be able to serve your friends, you will on board ships in the harbour, where many raise your family, you will extend the bounds continued above two months; the shakes all of your country, you will be known, not only that time being so violent, and coming so in Athens, but through all Greece, and perthick, sometimes two or three in an hour ac-haps your renown will fly even to the barbacompanied with frightful noises like a ruffling wind, or a hollow rumbling thunder, with brimstone blasts, that they durst not come ashore. The consequences of the earthquake was a general sickness, from the noisome vapours belched forth, which swept away above 3000 persons. After the detail of these horrible convulsions, the reader will have but little curiosity left, for the less considerable phenomena of the earthquake at Lima, in 1687, described by Fa. Alvarez de Toledo, wherein above 5000 persons were destroyed; this being of the vibratory kind, so that the bells in the church rung of themselves: or that at Batavia in 1699, by Witzen: that in the north of A certain man, whose name was Glaucon, the son of Ariston, had so fixt it in his mind to govern the republic, that he frequently presented himself before the people to discourse of the affairs of state, though all the world laughed at him for it; nor was it in the power of his relations or friends to dis rous nations, as did that of Themistocles. In short, wherever you come, you will have the respect and admiration of all the world. These words soothed Glaucon, and won him to give ear to Socrates, who went on in this manner. But it is certain, that if you desire to be honoured, you must be useful to the state. Certainly, said Glaucon. And in the name of all the gods, replied Socrates, tell me, what is the first service that you intend to render the state? Glaucon was considering what to answer, when Socrates continued. If you design to make the fortune of one of your friends, you would endeavour to make him rich, and thus perhaps you will make it your business to enrich the republic? I would, an swered Glaucon. Socrates replied: would be well to do so, said (laucon. It comes innot the way to enrich the republic be to in- to my mind, too, continued Socrates, that you crease its revenue? It is very likely it would, have never been at the mines of silver, to exsaid Glaucon. Tell me then in what consists amine why they bring not in so much now as the revenue of the state, and to how much it they did formerly. You say true, I have nemay amount? I presume you have particular- ver been there. Indeed they say the place is ly studied this matter, to the end that if any very unhealthy, and that may excuse you.― thing should be lost on one hand, you might You rally me now, said Glaucon. Socrates know where to make it good on another, and added; but I believe you have at least obserythat if a fund should fail on a sudden, you ed how much corn our lands produce, how might immediately be able to settle another long it will serve to supply our city, and how in its place? I protest, answered Glaucon, I much more we shall want for the whole year; have never thought of this. Tell me at least to the end you may not be surprised with a the expenses of the republic, for no doubt you scarcity of bread, but may give timely orders intend to retrench the superfluous! I never for the necessary provisions. There is a deal thought of this neither, said Glaucon. You to do, said Glaucon, if we must take care of were best then to put off to another time your all these things. There is so, replied Socradesign of enriching the republic, which you tes, and it is even impossible to manage our can never be able to do, while you are igno- own families well, unless we know all that is rant both of its expenses and revenue. There wanting, and take care to provide it. As you is another way to enrich a state, said Glau- see, therefore, that our city is composed of con, of which you take no notice, and that is above ten thousand families, and it being a difby the ruin of its enemies. You are in the ficult task to watch over them all at once, why right, answered Socrates: but to this end, it did you not first try to retrieve your uncle's is necessary to be stronger than they, other- affairs which are running to decay, and after wise we shall run the hazard of losing what having given that proof of your industry, you we have he therefore who talks of under- might have taken a greater trust upon you? taking a war, ought to know the strength on But now, when you find yourself incapable both sides, to the end that if his party be the of aiding a private man, how can you think stronger, he may boldly advise for war, and of behaving yourself so as to be useful to a that if it be the weaker, he may dissuade the whole people? ought a man who has not people from engaging themselves in so dan- strength enough to carry a hundred pound gerous an enterprise. All this is true. Tell weight, undertake to carry a heavier burden? 1 me then, continued Socrates, how strong our would have done good service to my uncle, forces are by sea and land, and how strong said Glaucon, if he would have taken my adare our enemies? Indeed, said Glaucon, I vice. How! replied Socrates, have you not cannot tell you on a sudden. If you have a hitherto been able to govern the mind of your list of them in writing, pray show it me, I uncle, and do you now believe yourself able should be glad to hear it read. I have it not to govern the minds of all the Athenians, and yet. I see then, said Socrates, that we shall not his among the rest? Take heed, my dear Glauengage in war so soon: for the greatness of con, take heed lest too great a desire of power the undertaking will hinder you from mature- should render you despised; consider how danly weighing all the consequences of it in the gerous it is to speak and entertain ourselves beginning of your government. But, continu- concerning things we do not understand: what ed he, you have thought of the defence of the a figure do those forward and rash people make country, you know what garrisons are neces- in the world, who do so; and judge yourself, sary, and what are not; you know what num- whether they acquire more esteem than blame, ber of troops is sufficient in one, and not suf- whether they are more admired than contemnficient in another: you will cause the neces-ed. Think, on the contrary, with how much sary garrisons to be reinforced, and will dis- honour a man is regarded, who understands band those that are useless? I should be of perfectly what he says, and what he does, and opinion said Glaucon, to leave none of them then you will confess that renown and apon foot, because they ruin a country, on pre-plause have always been the recompence of tence of defending it. But, Socrates objected if all the garrisons are taken away, there would be nothing to hinder the first comer from carrying off what he pleased: but how come you to know that the garrisons behave themselves so ill? Have you been upon the place, have you seen them? Not at all; but I suspect it to be so. When therefore we are certain of it, said Socrates, and can speak upon better grounds than simple conjectures, we will propose this advice to the senate. It may true merit, and shame the reward of ignorance and temerity. If therefore you would be honoured, endeavour to be a man of true merit; and if you enter upon the government of the republic, with a mind more sagacious than usual, I shall not wonder if you succeed in all your designs. Thus Socrates put a stop to the disorderly ambition of this man: but on an occasion quite contrary, he in the following manner exhorted Charmidas to take an employment. He |