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little stories. In giving the lesson, let it be
read to thern; let the meaning of the difficult
words in it be explained to them: and let
them con over by themselves before they are
called to read to the master or usher, who is
to take particular care, that they do not read
too fast, and that they duly observe the stops
and pauses.
A vocabulary of the most usual
difficult words might be formed for their use,
with explanations; and they might daily get
a few of those words and explanations by
heart, which would a little exercise their
memories; or at least they might write a
number of them in a small book for the pur-
pose, which would help to fix the meaning of
those words in their minds, and at the same
time furnish every one with a little dictionary
for his future use.

The Second Class

To be taught reading with attention, and with proper modulations of the voice, according to the sentiment and the subject.

Some short pieces, not exceeding the length of a Spectator, to be given this class for lessons (and some of the easier Spectators would be suitable for the purpose). These lessons might be given every night as tasks; the scholars to study them against the morning. Let it then be required of them to give an account, first of the parts of speech, and construction of one or two sentences. This will oblige them to recur frequently to their grammar, and fix its principal rules in their memory. Next, of the intention of the writer, or the scope of the piece, the meaning of each sentence, and of every uncommon word. This would early acquaint them with the meaning and force of words, and give them that most necessary habit, of reading with attention.

The master then to read the piece with the proper modulations of voice, due emphasis, and suitable action, where action is required: and put the youth on imitating his manner.

Where the author has used an expression not the best, let it be pointed out; and let his beauties be particularly remarked to the youth.

Let the lessons for reading be varied, that the youth may be made acquainted with good styles of all kinds, in prose and verse, and the proper manner of reading each kind -sometimes a well told story, a piece of a sermon, a general's speech to his soldiers, a speech in a tragedy, some part of a comedy, an ode, a satire, a letter, blank verse, Hudibrastic, heroic, &c. But let such lessons be chosen for reading, as contain some useful instruction, whereby the understanding or morals of the youth may at the same time be improved.

It is required that they should first study and understand the lessons, before they are put upon reading them properly; to which

end each boy should have an English diction ary, to help him over difficulties. When our boys read English to us, we are apt to imagine they understand what they read, because we do, and because it is their mother tongue. But they often read, as parrots speak, knowing little or nothing of the meaning. And it is impossible a reader should give the due modulation to his voice, and pronounce properly, unless his understanding goes before his tongue, and makes him master of the sentiment. Accustoming boys to read aloud what they do not first understand, is the cause of those even set tones so common among readers, which, when they have once got a habit of using, they find so difficult to correct : by which means, among fifty readers we scarcely find a good one. For want of good reading, pieces published with a view to influence the minds of men, for their own or the public benefit, lose half their force. Were there but one good reader in a neighbourhood, nation with the same advantages, and have a public orator might be heard throughout a the same effect upon his audience, as if they stood within the reach of his voice.

The Third Class

To be taught speaking proper and gracefully; which is near akin to good reading, and naturally follows it in the studies of youth. Let the scholars of this class begin with learning the elements of rhetoric from some short system, so as to be able to give an account of the most useful tropes and figures. Let all their bad habits of speaking, all offences against good grammar, all corrupt or foreign accents, and all improper phrases, be pointed out to him. Short speeches from the Roman, or other history, or from the legislative debates, might be got by heart, and delivered with the proper action, &c. Speeches and scenes in our best tragedies and comedies (avoiding every thing that could injure the inorals of youth) might likewise be got by rote, and the boys exercised in delivering or acting them; great care being taken to form their manner after the truest models.

For their farther improvement, and a little, to vary their studies, let them now begin to read history, after having got by heart a short table of the principal epochas in chronology.. They may begin with Rollin's Ancient and Roman histories, and proceed at proper hours, as they go through the subsequent classes, with the best histories of our own nation and colonies. Let emulation be excited among the boys, by giving, weekly, little prizes, or other small encouragements to those, who are able to give the best account of what they have read, as to time, places, names of persons, &c. This will make them read with attention, and imprint the history well on their memories. In remarking on the history, the master will have fine opportunities of instil

ling instruction of various kinds, and improving the morals, as well as the understandings, of youth.

The natural and mechanic history, contained in the Spectacle de la Nature, might also be begun in this class, and continued through the subsequent classes, by other books of the same kind; for, next to the knowledge of duty, this kind of knowledge is certainly the most useful, as well as the most entertaining. The merchant may thereby be enabled better to understand many commodities in trade; the handicraftsman, to improve his business by new instruments, mixtures and materials; and frequently hints are given for new manufactures, or new methods of improving land, that may be set on foot greatly to the advantage of a country.

The Fourth Class

To be taught composition. Writing one's own language well, is the next necessary accomplishment after good speaking. It is the writing-master's business, to take care that the boys make fair characters, and place them straight and even in the lines: but to form their style, and even to take care that the stops and capitals are properly disposed, is the part of the English master. The boys should be taught to write letters to each other on any common occurrences, and on various subjects, imaginary business, &c. containing little stories, accounts of their late reading, what parts of authors please them, and why; letters of congratulation, of compliment, of re-¦ quest, of thanks, of recommendation, of admo- | nition, of consolation, of expostulation, excuse, &c.

In these, they should be taught to express themselves clearly, concisely, and naturally, without affected words or high-flown phrases. All their letters to pass through the master's hand, who is to point out the faults, advise the corrections, and commend what he finds right. Some of the best letters published in our own language, as sir William Temple's, those of Pope and his friends, and some others, might be set before the youth as models, their beauties pointed out and explained by the master, the letters themselves transcribed by the scholar.

Dr. Johnson's Ethices Elementa, or First Principles of Morality, may now be read by the scholar, and explained by the master, to lay a solid foundation of virtue and piety in their minds. And as this class continues the reading of history, let them now, at proper hours, receive some farther instruction in chronology, and in that part of geography (from the mathematical master) which is necessary to understand the maps and globes. They should also be acquainted with the modern names of the places they find mentioned in ancient writers. The exercises of good reading, and proper speaking, still continued at suitable times.

The Fifth Class.

To improve the youth in composition, they may now, besides continuing to write letters, begin to write little essays in prose, and soinetimes in verse; not to make them poets, but for this reason, that nothing acquaints a lad so speedily with variety of expression, as the necessity of finding such words and phrases as will suit the measure, sound and rhyme of verse, and at the same time well express the sentiment. These essays should all pass under the master's eye, who will point out their faults, and put the writer on correcting them. Where the judgment is not ripe enough for forming new essays, let the sentiments of a Spectator be given, and required to be clothed in the scholar's own words; or the circumstances of some good story, the scholar to find expression. Let them be put sometimes on abridging a paragraph of a diffuse author: sometimes on dilating or amplifying what is wrote more closely. And now let Dr. Johnson's Noetica, or First Principles of Human Knowledge, containing a logic, or art of reasoning, &c. be read by the youth, and the difficulties, that may occur to them, be explained by the master. The reading of history, and the exercises of good reading and just speaking still continued.

The Sixth Class.

In this class, besides continuing the studies of the preceding in history, rhetoric, logic, moral and natural philosophy, the best English authors may be read and explained; as Tillotson, Milton, Locke, Addison, Pope, Swift, the higher papers in the Spectator and Guardian, the best translations of Homer, Virgil, and Horace, of Telemachus, Travels of Cyrus, &c.

Once a year, let there be public exercises in the hall; the trustees and citizens present. Then let fine bound books be given as prizes to such boys, as distinguish themselves, and excel the others in any branch of learning, making three degrees of comparison: giving the best prize to him, that performs best; a less valuable one to him, that comes up next to the best, and another to the third. Commendations, encouragement, and advice to the rest; keeping up their hopes, that, by industry, they may excel another time. The names of those, that obtain the prize, to be yearly printed in a list.

The hours of each day are to be divided and disposed in such a manner, as that some classes may be with the writing-master, improving their hands; others with the mathematical master, learning arithmetic, accounts, geography, use of the globes, drawing, mechanics, &c. while the rest are in the English school, under the English master's care.

Thus instructed, youth will come out of this school. fitted for learning any business, calling, or profession, except such wherein languages are required: and, though unac

quainted with any ancient or foreign tongue, sia, perfectly unknown as much as China, be they will be masters of their own, which is of yond it, and India only by a little commerce more immediate and general use, and withal upon the coast, about Surat and Malabar; Afriwill have attained many other valuable accom-ca had been more unknown, but by the ruin plishments: the time usually spent in acquir- of the Carthaginians, all the western coast of it ing those languages, often without success, was sunk out of knowledge again, and forgotbeing here employed in laying such a founda- ten; the northern coast of Africa, in the Metion of knowledge and ability, as, properly diterranean, remained known, and that was improved, may qualify them to pass through all, for the Saracens overrunning the nations and execute the several offices of civil life, which were planted there, ruined commerce. with advantage and reputation to themselves as well as religion; the Baltic Sea was not and country. discovered, nor even the navigation of it known; for the Teutonic knights came not thither till the 13th century.

On Discoveries.-From the Pennsylvania Gazette, No. 409, Oct. 14, 1736.

THE world but a few ages since, was in a very poor condition, as to trade and navigation, nor indeed, were they much better in other matters of useful knowledge. It was a green headed time, every useful improvement was hid from them, they had neither looked into heaven, nor earth, into the sea, nor land, as has been done since. They had philosophy without experiments, mathematics without instruments, geometry without scale, astronomy without demonstration.

They made war without powder, shot, cannon, or mortars; nay, the mob made their bonfires without squibs, or crackers. They went to sea without compass, and sailed without the needle. They viewed the stars, without telescopes, and measured latitudes without observation. Learning had no printing-press, writing no paper, and paper no ink; the lover was forced to send his mistress a deal board for a love-letter, and a billet doux might be the size of an ordinary trencher.They were clothed without manufacture, and their richest robes were the skins of the most formidable monsters; they carried on trade without books, and correspondence without posts; their merchants kept no accounts, their shop-keepers no cash-books, they had surgery without anatomy, and physicians without the materia medica, they gave emetics without ipecacuanha, drew blisters without cantharides, and cured agues without the bark. As for geographical discoveries, they had neither seen the North Cape, nor the Cape of Good Hope south. All the discovered inhabited world, which they knew and conversed with, was circumscribed within very narrow limits, viz. France, Britain, Spain, Italy, Germany, and Greece; the Lesser Asia, the west part of Persia, Arabia, the north parts of Africa, and the islands of the Mediterranean sea, and this was the whole world to them; not that even these countries were fully known neither, and several parts of them not inquired into at all. Germany was known little farther than the banks of the Elbe; Poland as little beyond the Vistula, or Hungary a little beyond the Danube; Muscovy or Rus

America was not heard of, nor so much as a suggestion in the minds of men, that any part of the world lay that way. The coasts of Greenland, or Spitsbergen, and the whale fishing, not known; the best navigators in the world, at that time, would have fled from a whale, with much more fright and horror, than from the devil, in the most terrible shapes they had been told he appeared in.

The coasts of Angola, Congo, the Gold and the Grain coasts, on the west side of Africa, from whence, since that time, such immense wealth has been drawn, not discovered, nor the least inquiry made after them. All the East India and China trade, not only undiscovered, but out of the reach of expectation! Coffee and tea, (those modern blessings of mankind) had never been heard of: all the unbounded ocean, we now call the South Sea, was hid, and unknown: all the Atlantic Ocean, beyond the mouth of the Streights, was frightful and terrible in the distant prospect, nor durst any one peep into it, otherwise than as they might creep along the coast of Africa, towards Sallee, or Santa Cruz. The North Seas was hid in a veil of impene. trable darkness; the White Sea, or Arch Angel, was a very modern discovery; not found out till sir Hugh Willoughby doubled the North Cape, and paid dear for the adventure. being frozen to death with all his crew on the coast of Lapland; while his companion's ship, with the famous Mr. Chancellor, went on to the Gulph of Russia, called the White Sea, where no Christian strangers had ever been before him.

In these narrow circumstances stood the world's knowledge at the beginning of the 15th century, when men of genius began to look abroad and about them. Now, as it was wonderful to see a world so full of people, and people so capable of improving, yet so stupid, and so blind, so ignorant, and so perfectly unimproved; it was wonderful to see, with what a general alacrity they took the alarm, almost all together; preparing themselves as it were on a sudden, by a general inspiration, to spread knowledge through the earth, and to search into every thing, that it was impossible to uncover.

How surprising is it to look back, so little a way behind us, and see, that even in less than two hundred years, all this (now so selfwise) part of the world did not so much as know, whether there was any such place, as a Russia, a China, a Guinea, a Greenland, or a North Cape? That as to America, it was never supposed, there was any such place, neither had the world, though they stood upon the shoulders of four thousand years' experience, the least thought, so much as that there was any land that way!

As they were ignorant of places, so of things also; so vast are the improvements of science, that all our knowledge of mathematics, of nature, of the brightest part of human wisdom, had their admission among us within these two last centuries.

What was the world then, before? And to what were the heads and hands of mankind applied? The rich had no commerce, the poor no employment; war and the sword was the great field of honour, the stage of preferment, and you have scarce a man eminent in the world, for any thing before that time, but for a furious outrageous falling upon his fellowcreatures, like Nimrod, and his successors of modern memory.

The world is now daily increasing in experimental knowledge; and let no man flatter the age, with pretending we have arrived to a perfection of discoveries.

What's now discovered, only serves to show,
That nothing's known, to what is yet to know.

is useful for all sorts and degrees of men, from the highest to the lowest.

As to the usefulness of geometry, it is as certain, that no curious art or mechanic work, can either be invented, improved, or performed, without its assisting principles.

It is owing to this, that astronomers are put into a way of making their observations, coming at the knowledge of the extent of the heavens, the duration of time, the motions, magnitudes, and distances of the heavenly bodies, their situations, positions, risings, settings, aspects, and eclipses; also the measure of seasons, of years, and of ages.

It is by the assistance of this science, that geographers present to our view at once, the magnitude and form of the whole earth, the vast extent of the seas, the divisions of empires, kingdoms, and provinces.

It is by the help of geometry, the ingenious mariner is instructed how to guide a ship through the vast ocean, from one part of the earth to another, the nearest and safest way, and in the shortest time.

By help of this science the architects take their just measures for the structure of buildings, as private houses, churches, palaces, ships, fortifications, &c.

By its help engineers conduct all their works, take the situation and plan of towns, forts and castles, measure their distances from one another, and carry their measure into places that are only accessible to the eye.

From hence also is deduced that admirable art of drawing sun-dials on any plane howsoever situate, and for any part of world, to

On the Usefulness of the Mathematics.-point out the exact time of the day, sun's de-
From the Pennsylvania Gazette, No. 360,
Oct. 30, 1735.

MATHEMATICS originally signifies any kind of discipline or learning, but now it is taken for that science, which teaches or contemplates whatever is capable of being numbered or measured. That part of the mathematics which relates to numbers only, is called arithmetic; and that which is concerned about measure in general, whether length, breadth, motion, force, &c. is called geometry. As to the usefulness of arithmetic, it is well known that no business, commerce, trade, or employment whatsoever, even from the merchant to the shopkeeper, &c. can be managed and carried on, without the assistance of numbers; for by these the trader computes the value of all sorts of goods that he dealeth in, does his business with ease and certainty, and informs himself how matters stand at any time with respect to men, money, or merchandise, to profit and loss, whether he goes forward or backward, grows richer or poorer. Neither is this science only useful to the merchant, but is reckoned the primum mobile (or first mover) of all mundane affairs in general, and

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clination, altitude, amplitude, azimuth, and other astronomical matters.

By geometry, the surveyor is directed how to draw a map of any country, to divide his lands, and to lay down and plot any piece of ground, and thereby discover the area in acres, rods, and perches. The gauger is instructed how to find the capacities or solid contents of all kinds of vessels, in barrels, gallons, bushels, &c. And the measurer is furnished with rules for finding the areas and contents of superfices and solids, and casting up all manner of workmanship. All these and many more useful arts, too many to be enumerated here, wholly depend upon the aforesaid sciences, viz. arithmetic and geometry.

This science is descended from the infancy of the world, the inventors of which were the first propagators of human kind, as Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, and divers others.

There has not been any science so much esteemed and honoured as this of the mathematics, nor with so much industry and vigilance become the care of great men, and laboured in by the potentates of the world, viz. emperors, kings, princes, &c.

Mathematical demonstrations, are a logic a mind worth cultivating, ought to apply of as much or more use, than that commonly themselves to this study.' learned at schools, serving to a just formation of the mind, enlarging its capacity, and strengthening it so, as to render the same capable of exact reasoning, and discerning truth from falsehood in all occurrences, even subjects not mathematical. For which reason it is said, the Egyptians, Persians, and Lacedemonians, seldom elected any new kings, but such as had some knowledge in the mathematics, imagining those who had not, men of imperfect judgments, and unfit to rule and

govern.

Though Plato's censure, that those who did not understand the 117th proposition of the 13th book of Euclid's Elements, ought not to be ranked amongst rational creatures, was unreasonable and unjust; yet to give a man the character of universal learning, who is destitute of a competent knowlege in the mathematics, is no less so.

The usefulness of some particular parts of the mathematics in the common affairs of human life, has rendered some knowledge of them very necessary to a great part of mankind, and very convenient to all the rest that are any way conversant beyond the limits of their own particular callings.

Those whom necessity has obliged to get their bread by manual industry, where some degree of art is required to go along with it, and who have had some insight into these studies, have very often found advantages from them sufficient to reward the pains they were at in acquiring them. And whatever may have been imputed to some other studies, under the notion of insignificancy and loss of time, yet these, I believe, never caused repentance in any, except it was for their remissness in the prosecution of them.

Philosophers do generally affirm, that human knowledge to be most excellent, which is conversant amongst the most excellent things. What science then can there be, more noble, more excellent, more useful for men, more admirably high and demonstrative, than this of the mathematics.

I shall conclude with what Plato says, lib. 7. of his Rebublic, with regard to the excellence and usefulness of geometry, being to this purpose:

"Dear Friend-You see then that mathematics are necessary, because by the exactness of the method, we get a habit of using our minds to the best advantage: and it is remarkable, that all men being capable by nature to reason and understand the sciences; the less acute, by studying this, though useless to them in every other respect, will gain this advantage, that their minds will be improved in reasoning aright; for no study employs it more, nor makes it susceptible of attention so much and these who we find have

Causes of Earthquakes.-From the Pennsylvania Gazette, No. 470, Dec. 15, 1737. THE late earthquake felt here, and probably in all the neighbouring provinces, have made many people desirous to know what may be the natural cause of such violent concussions; we shall endeavour to gratify their curiosity by giving them the various opinions of the learned on that head.

Here naturalists are divided. Some ascribe them to water, others to fire, and others to air: and all of them with some appearance of reason. To conceive which, it is to be observed, that the earth every where abounds in huge subterraneous caverns, veins and canals, particularly about the roots of mountains: that of these cavities, veins, &c. some are full of water, whence are composed gulphs, abysses, springs, rivulets; and others full of exhalations; and that some parts of the earth are replete with nitre, sulphur, bitumen, vitriol, &c.

This premised, 1. The earth itself may sometimes be the cause of its own shaking; when the roots or basis of some large mass being dissolved, or worn away by a fluid underneath, it sinks into the same; and with its weight, occasions a tremor of the adjacent parts; produces a noise, and frequently an inundation of water.

2. The subterraneous waters may occasion earthquakes, by their overflowing, cutting out new courses, &c. Add, that the water being heated and rarefied by the subterraneous fires, may emit fumes, blasts, &c. which by their action, either on the water or immediately on the earth itself, may occasion great succussions.

3. The air may be the cause of earthquakes: for the air being a collection of fumes and vapours raised from the earth and water; if it be pent up in too narrow viscera of the earth, the subterraneous, or its own native heat, rarefying and expanding it, the force wherewith it endeavours to escape, may shake the earth: hence there arise divers species of earthquakes, according to the different position, quantity, &c. of the imprisoned aura.

Lastly, fire is a principal cause of earthquakes; both as it produces the aforesaid subterraneous aura or vapours; and as this aura, or spirit, from the different matter and composition whereof arise sulphur, bitumen, and other inflammable matters, takes fire, either from some other fire it meets withal, or from its collision against hard bodies, or its intermixture with other fluids; by which means, bursting out into a greater compass, the place becomes too narrow for it; so that pressing against it on all sides, the adjoining parts are

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