APPRENTICES. Those of London, obliged to wear blue cloaks in summer, and blue gowns in winter, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, 1558. Ten pounds then a great apprentice fee. From twenty to one hundred pounds were given in the reign of James I.-Stowe's Survey. The apprentice tax enacted 43 George III. 1802. APPROPRIATIONS, IN THE CHURCH, were introduced in the time of William I.; the parochial clergy being then commonly Saxons, and the bishops and temporal clergy Normans. These made no scruple to impoverish the inferior clergy to enrich monasteries, which were generally possessed by the Conqueror's friends. Where the churches and tithes were so appropriated, the vicar had only such a competency as the bishop or superior thought fit to allow. This humour prevailed so far, that pope Alexander IV. complained of it, as the bane of religion, the destruction of the church, and as a poison that had infected the whole nation.-Pardon. APRICOTS. Prunus Armeniaca. They were first planted in England in A.D. 1540. They originally came from Epirus; the gardener of Henry VIII. introduced them into this country, and some say they excel here their pristine flavour and other qualities. APRIL. The fourth month of the year according to the vulgar computation, but the second according to the ancient Romans, Numa Pompilius having introduced Januarius and Februarius before it 713 B.C.-Peacham.

APRIL FOOL. The origin of the jokes played under this name is conjectured to rest with the French, who term the object of their mockery un poisson d'Avril, a name they also give to mackerel, a silly fish easily caught in great quantity at this season. The French antiquaries have vainly endeavoured to trace this custom to its source. It is said that we have borrowed the practice from our neighbours, changing the appellation from fish to fool; but, in England it is of no very great antiquity, as none of our old plays, nor any writer so old as the time of queen Elizabeth, have any allusion to it. In Scotland it is termed hunting the gowk (cuckoo).— Butler. AQUARIANS. A sect in the primitive church, said to have been founded by Tatian in the second century, and who forbore the use of wine even in the sacrament, and used nothing but water. The original occasion was the persecution the Christians were under, for which reason they met secretly and in the night, and for fear of discovery used water instead of wine, when they received the sacrament, which precaution became so fixed a custom, that when they could use it with safety, they rejected wine as unlawful.

AQUEDUCTS. Appius Claudius advised and constructed the first aqueduct, which was therefore called the Appian-way, about 453 B.C. Aqueducts of every kind were among the wonders of Rome.-Livy. There are now some remarkable aqueducts in Europe: that at Lisbon is of great extent and beauty; that at Segovia has 129 arches; and that at Versailles is three miles long, and of immense height, with 242 arches in three stories. The stupendous aqueduct on the Ellesmere canal, in England, is 1007 feet in length, and 126 feet high; it was opened Dec. 26, 1805. AQUITAINE, formerly belonged (together with Normandy) to the kings of England, as descendants of William the Conqueror. It was erected into a principality in 1362, and was annexed to France in 1370. The title of duke of Aquitaine was taken by the crown of England on the conquest of this duchy by Henry V. in 1418; but was lost in the reign of Henry VI.

ARABIA. This country is said never to have been conquered; the Arabians made no figure in history till A.D. 622, when, under the new name of Saracens, they followed Mahomet (a native of Arabia) as their general and prophet, and made considerable conquests.-Priestley.

ARABICI. A sect which sprung up in Arabia, whose distinguishing tenet was, that the soul died with the body, and also rose again with it, A.D. 207. There have been some revivals of this sect, but they were confined to the middle ages, and have not been known in civilised Europe.-Bossuet.

ARBELA, BATTLE OF. The third and decisive battle between Alexander the Great and Darius Codomanus, which decided the fate of Persia, 331 B.C. The army of Darius consisted of 1,000,000 of foot and 40,000 horse; the Macedonian army amounted to only 40,000 foot and 7,000 horse.--Arrian. The gold and silver found in the cities of Susa, Persepolis, and Babylon, which fell to Alexander from this victory, amounted to thirty millions sterling; and the jewels and other precious spoil, belonging to Darius, sufficed to load 20,000 mules and 5,000 camels.—Plutarch.

ARBITRATION. Submissions to arbitration may be a rule of any of the courts of record, and are equivalent in force to the decision of a jury, 9 and 13 William III. These statutes are, however, frequently unavailing, owing to barristers being often made arbitrators, whereby a decision according to law, and not according to equity, is enforced.-Gazeley. See article Ouzel Galley. ARBUTUS. The Arbutus Andrachne, oriental strawberry-tree, was brought to England from the Levant, about 1724. Although this tree was not much known in London until 1770, yet the arbutus is found in great plenty and perfection in the islands which beautify the lakes of Killarney in Ireland, where it was probably introduced by the monks who inhabited that part of the country at a very early period. ARCADES, OR WALKS ARCHED OVER. Some fine public marts of this kind have recently been built in these countries. The principal in London are the Burlington arcade, opened in March 1819; and the Lowther arcade, Strand, was opened at the period of the Strand improvements. See Strand. The Royal arcade, Dublin, opened June 1820, was burnt to the ground, April 25, 1837.

ARCADIA. The people of this country were very ancient, and reckoned themselves of longer standing than the moon; they were more rude in their manners than any of the Greeks, from whom they were shut up in a valley, surrounded with mountains. Pelasgus taught them to feed on acorns, as being more nutritious than herbs, their former food; and for this discovery they honoured him as a god, 1521 B.C.

Of Arcas, from whom the kingdom re-
ceives the name of Arcadia

He teaches his subjects agriculture and
the art of spinning wool; and after his
death is made a constellation, with
his mother.-Pausanias

The Lycæan games instituted, in honour
of Pan

Agapenor, grandson of Lycurgus, ap-
pears at the head of the Arcadians at
the siege of Troy
**Reign of Epitus

**

1320

B.C. 1194

1174

1169

715

Orestes, king of Mycenæ, arrives at Træzene, to be purified of the murder of his mother and her paramour The Lacedemonians invade Arcadia, and are beaten by the women of the country, in the absence of their husbands. 1102 Aristocrates I. is put to death for offering violence to the priestess of Diana Reign of Aleus, celebrated for his skill Aristocrates II. stoned to death, and in building temples.-Pausanias Arcadia made a republic ** Arcadia had twenty-five kings, whose history is altogether fabulous. The Arcadians were fond of military glory, although shepherds; and frequently hired themselves to fight the battles of other states.-Eustathius. A colony of Arcadians was conducted by Enotrus into Italy, 1710 B.C., and the country in which it settled was afterwards called Magna Gracia. Another colony under Evander emigrated to Italy 1244 B.C.-Idem. ARCHANGEL.

681

The passage to Archangel was discovered by the English in 1553, and it was the only seaport of Russia till the formation of the docks at Cronstadt, and foundation of St. Petersburgh, in 1703. The dreadful fire here, by which the cathedral and upwards of 3000 houses were destroyed, occurred in June 1793. ARCHBISHOP. This dignity was known in the East about A.D. 320. Athanasius conferred it on his successor. In these realms the dignity is nearly coeval with the establishment of Christianity. Before the Saxons came into England there were three sees, London, York, and Caerleon-upon-Usk; but soon after the arrival of St. Austin, he settled the metropolitan see at Canterbury, A.D. 596. York continued archiepiscopal; but London and Caerleon lost the dignity. Caerleon was found, previously, to be too near the dominions of the Saxons; and in the time of king Arthur, the archbishopric was transferred to St. David's, of which St. Sampson was the 26th and last Welch archbishop. See St. David's. The bishoprics in Scotland were under the jurisdiction of the archbishop of York until the erection of the archiepiscopal sees of St. Andrew's and Glasgow, in 1470 and 1491; these last were discontinued at the Revolution. See Glasgow and St. Andrew's. ARCHBISHOPS OF IRELAND. The rank of archbishop was of early institution 'in Ireland. See Ferns. Four archbishoprics were constituted in A. D. 1151, namely, Armagh, Cashel, Dublin, and Tuam; until then the archbishop of Canterbury had jurisdiction over the Irish as well as English bishops, in like manner as the archbishop of York had jurisdiction over those of Scotland.-See preceding article. Of the

four archbishoprics of Ireland two have lately been reduced to bishoprics, namely, Cashel and Tuam, conformably with the statute 3 and 4 W. IV. 1833, whereby the number of sees in Ireland is to be reduced (as the incumbents of ten of them, respec ́tively, die) from twenty-two to twelve.—See Bishops, Cashel, Tuam, Pallium, &c. ARCH-CHAMBERLAIN, an officer of the German empire, and the same with our great chamberlain of England. The elector of Brandenburgh was appointed the hereditary arch-chamberlain of the empire by the golden bull of Charles IV. in 1356, and in that quality he bore the sceptre before the emperor.

ARCH-CHANCELLORS. They were appointed under the two first races of the kings of France; and when their territories were divided, the archbishops of Mentz, Cologne, and Treves, became arch-chancellors of Germany, Italy, and Arles. ARCHDEACONS. There are sixty church officers of this rank in England, and thirtyfour in Ireland. The name was given to the first or eldest deacon, who attended on the bishop, without any power; but since the council of Nice, his function is become a dignity, and set above that of priest, though anciently it was quite otherwise. The appointment in these countries is referred to A. D. 1075. The archdeacon's court is the lowest in ecclesiastical polity: an appeal lies from it to the consistorial court, stat. 24 Henry VIII. 1532.

ARCHERY. It originated, according to the fanciful opinion of the poet Claudian, from the porcupine being observed to cast its quills whenever it was offended. Plato ascribes the invention to Apollo, by whom it was communicated to the Cretans. The eastern nations were expert in archery in the earliest ages, and the precision of the ancient archer is scarcely exceeded by our skill in modern arms. Astor of Amphipolis, upon being slighted by Philip, king of Macedonia, aimed an arrow at him. The arrow, on which was written "Aimed at Philip's right eye," struck it, and put it out; and Philip threw back the arrow with these words: "If Philip take the town, Aster shall be hanged." The conqueror kept his word.

ARCHERY IN ENGLAND. It was introduced previously to A. D. 440, and Harold and his two brothers were killed by arrows shot from the cross-bows of the Norman soldiers at the battle of Hastings, in 1066; that which killed the king pierced him in the brain. Richard I. revived archery in England in 1190, and was himself killed by an arrow in 1199. The victories of Crecy, Poitiers, and Agincourt, were won chiefly by archers. The usual range of the long-bow was from 3000 to 4000 yards. Robin Hood and Little John, it is said, shot twice that distance. Four thousand archers surrounded the houses of Parliament, ready to shoot the king and the members, 21 Richard II. 1397.-Stowe. The citizens of London were formed into companies of archers in the reign of Edward III.: they were formed into a corporate body by the style of "The Fraternity of St. George," 29 Henry VIII. 1538.-Northouk's History of London.

ARCHES are traced to the era of the Macedonian conquest by the best writers. The triumphal arches of the Romans form a leading feature in their architecture. Those of Trajan (erected A. D. 114) and Constantine were magnificent. The arches in our parks in London (that of Buckingham Palace was modelled from the arch of Constantine) were erected about 1828.

ARCHES OF STONE. In bridge architecture they were not in use in England until the close of the eleventh century. The Chinese bridges, which are very ancient, are of great magnitude, and are built with stone arches similar to those that have been considered as a Roman invention. Bow bridge was built in 1087. One of the largest stone arches hitherto built in England, is that of the new bridge of Chester, whose span is 200 feet; it was commenced in 1829. The central arch of London bridge is 152 feet; and the three cast-iron arches of Southwark bridge, which rest on massive stone piers and abutments, are, the two side ones 210 feet each, and the centre 240 feet; thus the centre arch is the largest in the world, as it exceeds the admired bridge of Sunderland by four feet in the span, and the long-famed Rialto at Venice, by 167 feet.

ARCHES, COURT OF, chiefly a court of appeal from the inferior jurisdictions within the province of the archbishop of Canterbury; it is the most ancient consistory court, and derives its name from the church of St. Mary-le-Bow, London (de Arcubus), where it was held; and whose top is raised of stone pillars built archwise.- Cowell. Appeals from this court lie to the judicial committee of the privy council, by statute 11 George IV. and I Will. IV. 1830.

ARCHITECTURE was cultivated by the Tyrians, about 1100 B.C. Their king, Hiram, supplied Solomon with cedar, gold, silver, and other materials for the Temple, in the building of which he assisted, 1015 B.C. The art passed to Greece, and from Greece to Rome. The style called Gothic came into vogue in the ninth century; The Saracens of Spain, being engaged during peace to build mosques, introduced grotesque carvings, &c., and the ponderous sublimity of bad taste; which species is known by elliptic arches and buttresses. The circular arch distinguishes the Norman-Gothic from the Saracenic, and came in with Henry I. The true Grecian style did not fully revive till about the reign of James I. 1603.

ARCHONS. When royalty was abolished at Athens, the executive government was vested in elective magistrates called archons, whose office continues for life. Medon, eldest son of Codrus, is the first who obtained this dignity, 1070 B.C. ARCOLA, BATTLE OF, between the French under general Buonaparte, and the Austrians under field-marshal Alvinzy, fought November 19, 1796. The result of this bloody conflict, which was fought for eight successive days, was the loss on the part of the Austrians of 12,000 men, in killed, wounded, and prisoners, four flags, and eighteen guns.

ARCOT, EAST INDIES, established in 1716: it was taken by Colonel Clive, in 1751; and retaken, but again surrendered to the British under Colonel Coote, in 1760. Besieged by Hyder Ali, when the British, under Colonel Baillie, suffered a severe defeat, Sept. 10, and Oct. 31, 1780. See India.

ARCTIC EXPEDITIONS. Several have been undertaken by England, and some by Russia and other countries. Sir Martin Frobisher was the first Englishman who attempted to find a north-west passage to China, A.D. 1576. Davis's expedition to the Arctic regions was undertaken in 1585. After a number of similar adventurous voyages, Baffin, an Englishman, attempted to find a north-west passage, in 1616. See Baffin's Bay. For the subsequent and late expeditions of this kind, including among the latter those of Buchan, Franklin, Ross, Parry, Liddon, Lyon, Back, &c., see North-West Passage.

ARDAGH, an ancient prelacy, founded by St. Patrick, who made his nephew the first bishop, previously to A.D. 454. This prelacy was formerly held with Kilmore; but since 1742, it has been held in commendam with Tuam (which see).

ARDFERT AND AGHADOE, bishoprics in Ireland, long united; the former was called the bishopric of Kerry; Ert presided in the fifth century. William Fuller, appointed in 1663, became bishop of Limerick in 1667, since when Ardfert and Aghadoe have been united to that prelacy. Near the cathedral, an anchorite tower, 120 feet high, the loftiest and finest in the kingdom, suddenly fell, 1770. AREOPAGITE. A famous council said to have heard causes in the dark, because the judges were blind to all but facts, instituted at Athens, 1507 B.C.-Arund. Marbles. The name is derived from the Greek Areos pagos, the Hill of Mars, because Mars was the first who was tried there for the murder of Hallirhotius, who had violated his daughter Alcippa. Whatever causes were pleaded before them, were to be divested of all oratory and fine speaking, lest eloquence should charm their ears, and corrupt their judgment. Hence arose the most just and impartial decisions. ARGENTARIA, BATTLE OF. One of the most renowned in its times, fought in Alsace, between the Allemanni and the Romans, the former being defeated by the latter with the loss of more than 35,000 out of 40,000 men, A.D. 378.-Dufresnoy. ARGONAUTIC EXPEDITION, undertaken by Jason to avenge the death of Phryxus, and recover his treasures seized by the king of Colchis. The ship in which Phryxus had sailed to Colchis having been adorned with the figure of a ram, it induced the poets to pretend that the journey of Jason was for the recovery of the golden fleece. This is the first naval expedition on record; it made a great noise in Greece, and many kings and the first heroes of the age accompanied Jason, whose ship was called Argo, from its builder, 1263 B.C.- -Dufresnoy.

ARGOS. This kingdom was founded by Inachus, 1856 B.C., or 1080 years before the first Olympiad.-Blair. The nine kings from the founder were called Inachide, of whom the fourth was Argus, and he gave his name to the country. When the Heraclidæ took possession of Peloponnesus, B.c. 1102, Temenus seized Argos and its dependencies. Argos was afterwards a republic, and distinguished itself in all the wars of Greece.-Euripides.

It was lost to

Argos, in modern history, was taken from the Venetians, A.D. 1686. the Turks in 1716, since when it continued in their hands until 1826. Argos became united in the sovereignty of Greece under Otho, the present and first king, January 25, 1833. See Greece. ARGYLE, BISHOPRIC OF, founded A.D. 1200, Evaldus being the first bishop; the diocese was previously part of the see of Dunkeld; but was disjoined by pope Innocent III.; and it ended, with the abolition of episcopacy in Scotland, 1688. ARIANS. The followers of Arius, a numerous sect of Christians, who deny the divinity of CHRIST; they arose about AD. 315. The Arians were condemned by the council of Nice, in 325; but their doctrine became for a time the reigning religion in the East. It was favoured by Constantine, 319. Carried into Africa under the Vandals, in the fifth century, and into Asia under the Goths. Servetus published his treatise against the Trinity, 1531, and hence arose the modern system of Arianism in Geneva, Arius died in 336. Servetus was burnt, 1553.-Varillas, Hist. de l'Hérésie.

ARITHMETIC. Where first invented is not known, at least with certainty. It was brought from Egypt into Greece by Thales, about 600 B.C. The oldest treatise upon arithmetic is by Euclid (7th, 8th, and 9th books of his Elements), about 300 B.C. The sexagesimal arithmetic of Ptolemy was used A.D. 130. Diophantus of Alexandria, was the author of thirteen books of Arithmetical questions (of which six are extant) in 156. Notation by nine digits and zero, known at least as early as the sixth century in Hindostan-introduced from thence into Arabia, about 900into Spain, 1050-into England, 1253. The date in Caxton's Mirrour of the World, Arabic characters, is 1480. Arithmetic of decimals invented, 1482. First work printed in England on arithmetic (de Arte Supputandi) was by Tonstall, bishop of Durham, 1522. The theory of decimal fractions was perfected by lord Napier in his Rabdologia, in 1617.

ARK. Mount Ararat is venerated by the Armenians, from a belief of its being the place on which Noah's ark rested, after the universal Deluge, 2347 B.C. But Apamea, in Phrygia, claims to be the spot; and medals have been struck there with a chest on the waters, and the letters NOE, and two doves this place is 300 miles west of Ararat. The ark was 300 cubits in length, fifty in breadth, and thirty high; but most interpreters suppose this cubit to be about a foot and a half, and not the geometrical one of six. There were, we are told, three floors-the first for beasts, the second for provisions, and the third for birds, and Noah's family. It was not made like a ship, but came near the figure of a square, growing gradually narrower to the top. There was a door in the first floor, and a great window in the third. ARKLOW, BATTLE OF, between the insurgent Irish, amounting to 31,000, and a small regular force of British, which signally defeated them, June 10, 1798. The town was nearly destroyed by the insurgents in May previous. Native gold was discovered in Arklow in Sept. 1795.-Phil. Trans. vol. 86. ARMADA, THE INVINCIBLE. The famous Spanish armament so called consisted of 150 ships, 2650 great guns, 20,000 soldiers, 8000 sailors, and 2000 volunteers, under the duke of Medina Sidonia. It arrived in the Channel, July 19, 1588, and was defeated the next day by Drake and Howard. Ten fire-ships having been sent into the enemies' fleet, they cut their cables, put to sea and endeavoured to return

D