VII. THE SPECIFIC AIM OF SPEECHES

But it may be asked what instruction, what belief, what action, what entertainment is the objective of a speech. Can you make a speech simply for the purpose of belief? Obviously not. You must make a speech for the purpose of developing or securing some specific belief. In other words, you must have in each speech a specific aim. Now some will doubtless say, "If it is necessary to have a specific aim for each speech, why talk about these general ends at all?" The reason is that it seems worth while to group the innumerable, unnamable aims which speeches may have into these five general divisions which are easily recognized and dealt with as convenient classifications. It does not make any difference which the prospective speaker hits upon first, the recognition of his specific aim or of his general end, but before he has gone very far in his preparation he should know exactly what his specific aim is in a given speech and he should know to which one of the given general ends that specific aim belongs.

A good speech, the end of which is instruction, aims not simply to teach, but to teach something definite that can be taught, in the time available, to the audience present. The speaker should know at the beginning of his work of preparation exactly what he is going to try to teach to the audience. He may or may not take the audience into his confidence in this regard at the beginning of the speech.

So also in respect to belief. It is not enough to aim a speech simply at belief. It is necessary to have a very definite proposition in mind and to know exactly what belief you are going to try to get your audience to accept. The speaker should have that belief very carefully phrased for himself whether or not he states it to his audience. For action the same thing is true. The speaker should know before he prepares his speech the precise action he wishes to move his audience toward. If possible, he should move them to some

thing overt and definite at the close of his speech. If the speaker can get the members of his audience to commit themselves publicly by signing a petition, or putting on badges, or standing and voting "aye," he has probably crystallized their sentiments in such a way as to preserve these sentiments until the voting booth is reached on election day.

If the general end of a speech is impressiveness the speaker should phrase for himself a statement of the exact theme or truth which he wishes to impress upon his hearers. If his end is entertainment, he should of course know exactly what type of entertainment he is going to try to give. In other words, before a good workman undertakes a task he knows of course whether he is to build a barn, or a house, or a garage, but he also goes further than that. He has a definite, specific barn, or house, or garage in mind. So in speaking; the specific aim of each speech should be carefully worked out at the beginning for the use of the speaker.

EXERCISES

1. Bring in a list of five examples of speeches that might be made for ulterior purposes. Explain in connection with each one the exact ulterior purpose, and also the ostensible rhetorical purpose.

2. Bring to class an account of actual speeches delivered by others, in which you believe the speakers were motivated by ulterior purposes. Explain carefully.

3. Cite speeches which you have recently heard or read, which you believe illustrate each of the five general ends.

4. Prepare a list of ten speech situations in which you might deliver speeches, having two of them planned for each of the five general ends.

5. Prepare a short extemporaneous speech. Explain to the class how and under what circumstances you would make a speech for each of the five general ends.

6. Using the material prepared for Exercise 5, write at least three separate, specific aims under each of the speech situations discussed in connection with the five general ends.

CHAPTER XIII

SPEECH MATERIALS

I. TYPES OF MATERIAL

A. Facts

B. Opinions

C. Reasoning

D. Examples

II. METHODS OF GETTING MATERIAL

A. Thinking

B. Observing

C. Talking

D. Corresponding

E. Reading

III. HANDLING MATERIAL

I. TYPES OF MATERIAL

An essential point in the analysis of speech situations is always a consideration of the material out of which speeches are made. Such material is almost infinite in variety. It seems worth while, however, to dwell upon four important types of material which (in one form or another) pretty largely make up the substance of speeches. In planning your speech consider the possibility of getting good material of these types. Estimate the possibilities. Consider first whether or not the material exists, and then what work will be necessary to find it. Consider the kinds you want, the amount you want, and get it before you make an outline of your speech.

A. Facts. Many speeches have a great many statements of fact in them. They give the hearers considerable information. Knowledge is spread, is used, is brought to the consciousness of the audience and manipulated by the speaker to his ends. Examples are: facts and figures in regard to a certain industry; facts in regard to financial, social, moral

conditions of certain groups of people at certain times; information in regard to what a certain man has done in various fields; facts of history; items of information about distant countries and peoples; knowledge concerning the earth, or the birds and beasts and plants that live upon it.

B. Opinions. Many speeches contain a great many opinions that are quoted for the purpose of influencing the audience. We are told that Dr. Blank has expressed this opinion, that Judge Dash has held such an opinion; that this was the belief of General A. or Governor B. or Professor C. If the authority and standing of these people whose opinions are quoted is not instantly recognized, the speaker should explain why these opinions are entitled to weight.

It is important to distinguish between a fact and an opinion; and it is important to realize that frequently we use the word "authorities" improperly in citing opinions. We should not normally speak of an authority in regard to matters of fact. We should use the word "authority" as it is used in the phrase "argument from authority." This is almost always properly the same as "opinion evidence" or "expert testimony." This is sometimes given in regard to matters of fact, but usually not. The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, testifying in a lawsuit that he saw Jones struck and killed by an automobile on the street, is not speaking as an authority but only as an ordinary witness. He is testifying to a fact. It may be said that he is the authority for the statement that Jones was killed in that manner. But this is using the word "authority" simply as the synonym for the word "source" and is not a particularly happy use of the term. The Chief Justice of the United States, testifying that a certain proposed law would not be constitutional, is speaking as an authority. He is expressing an opinion, an opinion from which another Justice of the court might differ. So a physician, testifying that a bridge upon a certain highway was washed out, is not speaking as an authority. The testimony of the most eminent physician in the state that the bridge had been washed out is no better

than the testimony of any honest, mature, and sane witness who had an opportunity to find out that fact. The physician, testifying that a certain type of blow given to a person of a certain age and condition would result in death, is speaking as an authority. He is giving an opinion.

It is not always easy to distinguish between facts and opinions, but it is sufficiently easy so that the attempt ought to be made very much oftener than it is. In all kinds of argumentative speaking, from high school contest debates to great political discussions, there is too much reliance upon opinions and not enough concern about facts. There is a tendency to use the argument from authority and to seek to influence people by quoting opinions of distinguished men when the people who are being spoken to are just as capable of forming a correct opinion (if they had the facts) as are the eminent people whose opinions are presented to them. We should distinguish between the facts in regard to the coal industry and the opinions of various coal operators, labor leaders, economists, or politicians in regard to the coal industry.

There are situations in which opinions will be quite worth while, but we should know just why we are using opinions when we use them and why we are using facts when we use facts, and we should not confuse the two. There are places in buildings in which stone is useful and other places in which wood is useful, and the careful builder usually knows the difference between stone and wood, and he knows why he wishes wood in one place and stone in another. We should have something of a parallel in this situation in rhetoric in regard to facts and opinions.

C. Reasoning. In some speeches there is a great deal of reasoning; in other speeches there is no reasoning at all. In many speeches there could be considerably more reasoning than there is, to the betterment of the speeches. Suppose you give your audience a group of facts, reasoning consists of showing what those facts tend to prove or disprove. It consists in showing this, not simply in asserting it. Many speak