FENNEL. [FŒNICULUM.]

FENTON, ELIJAH, was born in Staffordshire in the year 1683. Being designed for the church, he was admitted a pensioner of Jesus College, Cambridge, in 1700. After taking a bachelor's degree, he was forced to leave the uni versity in consequence of being a non-juror. He became secretary to the earl of Orrery, and accompanied that nobleman to Flanders. After his return to England in 1705, he accepted the situation of assistant at Mr. Bonwicke's school at Headly in Surrey, and subsequently became head-master of the free grammar-school at Sevenoaks in Kent. Mr. St. John (afterwards Lord Bolingbroke) persuaded him to retire from this school, promising to do great things for him, which promises were never fulfilled. Lord Orrery again befriended him, and made him tutor to his son, Lord Broghill. This office lasted for six or seven years, during which Fenton became acquainted with Pope, and assisted him in the translation of the Odyssey.' The first, fourth, nineteenth, and twentieth books are said to be the work of Fenton. In 1723 he produced at the theatre in Lincoln's Inn Fields a tragedy called 'Mariamne, which was so successful that he is reported to have gained 10002. by its representation, and to have employed great part of the money in paying off the debts which St. John's conduct had caused him to incur. In 1727 he revised a new edition of Milton's works, and préfixed a life of the author; and in 1729 he published a fine edition of Waller. Through the recommendation of Pope, he became tutor to the son of Lady Trumbull; and when that occupation was at an end, she made him auditor of her accounts. He died in 1730.

Bossuet, and Bossuet's example, led him to write a treatise | be diffuse and tedious. So much use does he make of the against heretics, entitled 'Du Ministère des Pasteurs,' in imaginative faculties, that he exhorts teachers to impress which heretics are attacked, though with more moderation on the minds of children that the Deity is sitting on a than they had been by Bossuet. Fenelon being intrusted by throne, with very bright eyes looking through everything, Louis XIV. with a mission to Poitou, to convert the Protest- and supporting the universe with his hands. Hence his ants, nobly refused the aid of dragoons, and employed persua- natural theology is chiefly the ejaculation of a pious man sion alone as an instrument of conversion. His conduct on admiring the works of Nature. In politics, Fenelon's this occasion gained him many friends. In 1689 he was opinions are far in advance of his age and country: in one appointed tutor to the young duke of Burgundy, which of his treatises he declaims against checking liberty of brought him into attendance on the court. Though the conscience, and boldly proclaims the injustice of levying polish and grace which pervade his writings extended to taxes without the sanction of a parliament. A handsome his conversation, he never seems to have been a great quarto edition of his works was published at Paris in 1787. favourite of Louis; his political opinions always tended to FENNEC. [Fox.] liberality, and in a letter to Mad. de Maintenon he animadverted rather freely on the character of the king. Notwithstanding this, after he had been tutor for five years, Louis made him archbishop of Cambray. Unfortunately, at the very moment when he had gained this elevated post, that series of events commenced which caused his future disgrace. He formed an acquaintance with the celebrated quietist, Mad. Guyon, who was at first in high favour with Mad. de Maintenon, and who was encouraged by her to spread her doctrines at St. Cyr. This lady was afterwards persecuted by Bossuet; and as Fenelon was suspected of favouring her doctrines, Bossuet required him to condemn them. Not only did Fenelon refuse, but he published a book called 'Explication des Maximes des Saints,' in which the principles of quietism were openly avowed. Upon this, Bossuet denounced him to the king as a heretic. To increase his troubles, his palace caught fire about the same time, and all his MSS. and books were destroyed. The persecution of Bossuet continued; and the protection of Mad. de Maintenon, who had at first encouraged Fenelon, was withdrawn. Bossuet required that the difference should be settled by a controversy: Fenelon would not accede to these terms, but offered to submit his book to the tribunal at Rome. His persecutor however succeeded so far as to cause him to be banished from the court, and endeavoured, though unsuccessfully, to involve Beauvilliers, governor to the duke of Burgundy, in his disgrace. Pope Innocent VIII., though strongly urged by Louis, was not willing at once to condemn a prelate so no ed for learning and piety, and a violent paper war was waged by both parties. At last the papal letter arrived, and the archbishop of Cambray was forced to submit; he signed a renunciation, and would have been restored to regal favour had not the celebrated romance of Telemaque,' which he had written some years before, been published against his will through the treachery of a servant. Several passages in this work were suspected by Louis to be directed against himself; it was suppressed in France, but rapidly circulated in Holland. Hearing of the unfortunate impression which his book had made, Fenelon resolved to remain quietly in h's diocese. Cambray being situated on the frontiers of France, he was visited by many illustrious foreigners. Fenelon's acts of benevolence were munificent: in the year 1709 he fed the French army at his own expense. It has been already remarked that his political opinions were liberal; he had always conceived it just that the people should have a share in the government, and it was expected that the duke of Burgundy would have acted in accordance with his preceptor's views. But all hopes of this sort were cut off by the sudden death of that prince. Fenelon himself died in 1517. The works of Fenelon are very numerous; consisting, besides the romance of Telemaque,' of a variety of religious and moral treatises. Telemaque' has been translated into every European language, and is read at almost every European school. Had it been written in this age, it is questionable whether its popularity would have been so great; the spirit of the Greeks is much better understood than it was formerly, and the classic reader, though he may admire the language of 'Telemaque, as well as the general accuracy of the writer's information on matters of antient history and geography, will find it strange that the sentimental speeches, though good in themselves, should flow from the mouth of Homeric heroes, who of all beings were the least moralising, in the modern sense of the word. His religious and moral essays are only calculated for persons in whose mental constitution warmth and susceptibility are predominant, and who can suffer themselves to be led on by the fervour and eloquence of the author. To the cool and more intellectual inquirer after truth his works will

All biographers bear testimony to Fenton's character as an upright and honourable man. His poetical works are but few in number, and consist of short pieces, chiefly paraphrases from the antients. As they have scarcely any merit but that of correct versification, they will probably never be rescued from the neglect into which they now have sunk. The tragedy of Mariamne,' like most of that time, is totally forgotten.

FENUGREEK. [TRIGONELLA.]
FEOD. [FEUDAL SYSTEM.]
FEODO'SIA. [KAFFA]

FEOFFMENT (in law) is that mode of conveyance of lands or real hereditaments in possession where the land passes by force of livery in deed, i. e. actual delivery of a portion of the land, as a twig or a turf; or where the parties being on the land the feoffor expressly gives it to the feoffee, &c.; or livery in law or within view, i.e. where the parties being within sight of the land, the feoffor refers to it and gives it to the feoffee. A feoffment was the earliest mode of conveying real hereditaments in possession known to the common law. A grant [DEED; GRANT] was the mode used when lands subject to an existing estate of freehold, and when rents or other incorporeal hereditaments incapable from their nature of being the subjects of livery, were transferred. The term feoffment is evidently of feudal origin its latinised form being feoffamentum, from feudare or infeudare, to infeoff, to give a feud. The mode of conveyance is however of much higher antiquity than the feudal system, the mode of transferring property by the delivery of possession being common to all nations in rude ages. (Gilb. Ten. 386.) It prevailed amongst the Anglo-Saxons, who gave possession by the delivery of a twig or a turf, a mode still common, particularly in the admission of tenants of copy hold lands. The form of an antient feoffment was singularly concise. There is a copy of one in the Appendix to the 2nd vol. of Blackstone's Commentaries, No. 1.

The essential part of this mode of conveyance is the delivery of possession, or, as it is technically called, livery of seisin. In former times land was frequently conveyed without any deed or writing, by simple delivery. Subsequently

it became the custom to have a written instrument called the charter or deed of feoffment [CHARTER], which declared the intention of the parties to the conveyance. But now, since the Statute of Frauds (29 Car. II. § 3), a written instrument is necessary. Still however the land passes by the livery, for if a deed of feoffment is made without livery, an estate at will only passes [ESTATE]; though if livery is made, and the deed does not express that the land is conveyed to the feoffee and his heirs, an estate for the life of the feoffee only will pass. No less estate than an estate of freehold can pass by a feoffment with livery, the livery being in fact the investiture with the freehold.

Livery of seisin, of both the kinds previously mentioned, was at first performed in the presence of the freeholders of the neighbourhood, vassals of the feudal lord; because any dispute relating to the freehold was decided before them as pares curiæ, equals of the court,' of the lord of the fee. But afterwards, upon the decay of the feudal system, the livery was made in the presence of any witnesses; and where a deed was used, the livery was attested by those who were present at it.

sake of economy upon small purchases, in order to save the expense of a second deed, which is necessary where the conveyance is by lease and release.

FERÆ (Zoology), the third order of Mammalia, according to Linnæus. The following is his character of the order: upper incisor teeth (primores) six, rather acute (acutiusculi); canine teeth solitary. The order contains the following genera:-1. Phoca (the Seals); 2. Canis (the Dogs, Wolves, Foxes, Hyænas, and Jackals); 3. Felis (the Cats, Lions, Tigers, Leopards, Lynxes, and smaller cats); 4. Viverra (the Ichneumons, Coatis, Skunk (Putorius), Civets, and Genets); 5. Mustela (the Otters, Glutton, Martens, Pole-cats, Ferrets, and Weasels, including the Ermine, &c.); 6. Ursus (Bears, Badgers, and Racoons); 7. Didelphis (the Opossums); 8. Talpa (the Moles); 9. Sorex (the Shrews); 10. Erinaceus (the Hedge-hogs). Linnæus places the Fera between the orders Bruta and Glires.

FERDINAND I. of Austria, younger brother of Charles V., born in 1503, was elected king of the Romans during his brother's reign, and succeeded him as emperor in consequence of the abdication of Charles, which was sanctioned by the diet of the empire in 1558. Ferdinand had married in 1521 Anna, daughter of Ladislaus VI., king of Bohemia and Hungary, and sister of Louis, who having succeeded his father in the crown of those realms, was killed in the disastrous battle of Mohacz by the Turks in 1526, and left no issue. Ferdinand, claiming a right to the succession in the name of his wife, the states of Bohemia acknowledged him, but in Hungary a strong party declared for John of Zapoli, palatine of Transylvania. This was the beginning of a long and desolating war, interrupted by occasional truces, in which Solyman, sultan of the Turks, interfered on behalf of John, and after John's death in 1540, on behalf of his son Sigismund, who continued to hold a part of Hungary till the death of Ferdinand. In Bohemia the religious disputes between the Callixtines, who were a remnant of the Hussites and the Roman Catholics, occasioned considerable uneasiness to Ferdinand, who found at last that it was his policy to tolerate the former. At the same time however he effected a thorough change in the institutions of that kingdom by declaring the crown of Bohemia bereditary in his family, without the sanction of the states. This gave rise to a confederacy which opposed Ferdinand by force of arms, but was at length overpowered and dissolved. On being proclaimed Emperor of Germany, after having signed certain conditions with the electors, which defined the boundaries of the imperial authority and gave security to the Protestant religion, Ferdinand notified his election to Pope Paul IV., expressing a desire to be crowned by his hands. Paul refused, under the plea that the abdication of Charles V. was effected without the consent of the papal see, and required a fresh tensions, ordered his ambassador to quit Rome. Paul however dying soon after, his successor, Pius IV., showed himself more tractable in acknowledging Ferdinand as head of the empire. It was then resolved by the electors, Protestant as well as Catholic, that in future no emperor should receive the crown from the hands of the pope, and that, instead of the customary form in which the emperor elect professed his obedience to the head of the church, a mere complimentary epistle should be substituted; and this was observed on the election of Maximilian, son of Ferdinand, as king of the Romans, a title which ensured his succession to the empire. Thus ended the last remains of that temporal dependence of the German empire on the see of Rome which had been the subject of so many controversies and wars.

Livery in deed may be made by the feoffor or his attorney to the feoffee or his attorney. When lands lie in several counties, as many liveries are necessary; and where lands are out on lease, there must be as many liveries as there are tenants, for no livery can be made but by the consent of the tenant in possession, and the consent of one will not bind the rest. But livery in law or within view can only be given and taken by the parties themselves, though lands in several counties may pass if they all be within view. Livery of this nature requires to be perfected by subsequent entry in the lifetime of the feoffor. Formerly, if the feoffee durst not enter for fear of his life or bodily harm, his claim, made yearly in the form prescribed by law, and called continual claim, would preserve his right. The security of property consequent upon the progress of civilization having rendered this exception unnecessary, it was abolished by the recent Statute of Limitations, 3 & 4 Will. IV., c. 27 § 11. Since the Statute of Uses [BARGAIN; SALR; USES] has introduced a more convenient mode of conveyance, feoffments have been rarely used in practice, and then rather for their supposed peculiar effects, as wrongful conveyances [CONVEYANCES], than as simple means of transferring property. It has been usual to make corporations convey their own estates by feoffment, in consequence of the supposition that a corporate body cannot stand seised to a use, though it seems that this doctrine only applies to the case of lands being conveyed to a corporation to the use of others. (Gilb. on Uses, Sugd. Ed. 7 note.) Where the object to be attained was the destruction of contingent remainders or the discontinuance of an estate tail, or the acquirement of a fee for the purpose of levying a fine [FINE] or suffering a recovery [RECOVERY], a feoffment was usually em-election to be made. Ferdinand, indignant at these preployed. Sach indeed was the efficacy attributed to this mode of conveyance by the earlier law writers, that where the feoffor was in possession, however unfounded his title might be, yet his feoffment passed a fee; voidable, it is true, by the rightful owner, but which by the lapse of time might become good even as against him. Being thus supposed to operate as a disseisin to the rightful owner, it was thought till recently that a person entitled to a term of years might by making a feoffient to a stranger pass a fee to him, and then by levying a fine acquire a title by non-claim. This doctrine led to very considerable discussion, and though strictly accordant to the principle of the old law, yet being alike repugnant to the principles of justice and to common sense, it has been overruled. In the progress of the discussion which ended in overturning the doctrine, arguments against its justice and expediency were used, rather than those founded upon the principles of law, and the bench even resorted to ridicule. Mr. Baron Graham in one case observed, Yet is this pretended possession of paper and packthread to be called by the tremendous name of disseisin.' The whole state of the question may be found in Mr. Knowler's celebrated argument in Taylor dem. Atkins v. Horde; 1 Burr. 60, Doe dem. Maddock v. Lynes, 3 B. & C. 382; Jerritt v. Wrace, 3 Price, 575; 1 Sand. Uses, 40 (4th ed.); 1 Prest. Conv. 32 (2nd ed.); and 4 Bythew. Conv. (Jarman's edit.), 117.

The owner of lands of gavelkind tenure [GAVELKIND] may convey them by feoffment at the age of 15; and therefore in such cases, which are necessarily rare, a feoffment is still resorted to. It is also frequently used for the

Ferdinand continued throughout his reign to hold the balance even between the Protestants and Catholics with regard to their mutual toleration and outward harmony; he even endeavoured, though unsuccessfully, to effect a union of the two communions, by trying to persuade the Protestants to send deputies to and acknowledge the authority of the council assembled at Trent. This however they refused to do, unless their theologians were acknowledged as equal in dignity to the Roman Catholic bishops, and unless the council were transferred from Trent to some city of the empire. Ferdinand, on the other side, in order to conciliate some at least of the various dissenting sects in his own hereditary states, attempted to obtain of the pope, among other concessions, the use of the cup at the communion-table for the laity, and the liberty of marriage for the priests. Pius IV,

however, moderate as he was, would not listen to these two | concessions, especially the latter, and the negotiations were still pending with regard to the former, when the emperor died at Vienna in July, 1564. He left three sons: 1, Maximilian, who succeeded him as emperor, archduke of Austria, and king of Bohemia and Hungary; 2, Ferdinand, whom he made count of Tyrol; 3, Charles, whom he appointed duke of Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola. Upon the whole, the administration of Ferdinand was able and enlightened; he maintained religious peace in Germany, he effected some useful reforms, and he saw the closing of the council of Trent. (Coxe, History of the House of Austria; Dunham, History of the Germanic Empire.)

reduce his army and dismiss Waldstein, who had rendered himself hateful by the disorders of his troops. Soon afterwards Gustavus Adolphus landed in Pomerania, and put himself at the head of the Protestant party in Germany. The events of the memorable campaigns that followed are well known from Schiller's Thirty Years' War,' and other his torians. [GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS.] The Protestant cause triumphed in Germany until Gustavus fell at the battle of Lutzen, 1632, after which the Swedes and German Protestants continued the war; but the victory of Nordlingen, gained by Ferdinand, eldest son of the emperor, had the effect of detaching the elector of Saxony from the Swedes, an example followed by almost all the other German states. Ferdinand died in February, 1637, after having witnessed the election and coronation of his son Ferdinand as king of the Romans.

Ferdinand II. reigned in very troubled times; his bigotry and intolerance were the cause of most of his troubles, but he was not deficient in abilities or perseverance. His connivance at the assassination of his best general, Waldstein, whose ambition and arrogance had made him suspected and feared, is an everlasting blot on his memory.

FERDINAND III., son of Ferdinand II., had to continue the war against the Swedes, who had been joined by the French, for several years more, until the peace of Westphalia, 1648, put an end to the desolating struggle. This celebrated treaty forms an important epoch in the history of Germany and of Europe. The remainder of the reign of Ferdinand III. was passed in tranquillity. He died in 1657, leaving behind him the character of a wise, temperate, and a brave prince. He was succeeded by his son, Leopold I.

FERDINAND II. of Austria, son of Charles, duke of Styria, and grandson of Ferdinand I., succeeded his cousin Matthias in 1619. But the states of Bohemia, who were already in open revolt against Matthias, both from political and religious grievances, refused to acknowledge Ferdinand, and declared the throne vacant. Count Thorn, who was at the head of the Bohemian insurgents, was joined by the dissidents of Moravia, Silesia, and Upper Austria, and Ferdinand found himself besieged within the walls of Vienna by the rebels, who threatened to put to death his ministers, as they had done with the governor of Prague and his secretary, whom they had hurled from the windows of the town-house, and to confine Ferdinand himself in a monastery, and educate his children in the Protestant faith. His friends however found means to raise the siege, and Ferdinand hastened to Germany to claim the imperial crown, having been acknowledged king of the Romans during the reign of his predecessor. He carried his election by means of the Catholic electors, who formed the majority. But the Bohemian states elected as their king Frederic, Count FERDINAND I. of Naples was the natural son of AlPalatine, son-in-law of James I. of England, and Hungary fonso V. of Aragon and of Sicily. His father obtained of joined in the revolt, supported by Bethlehem Gabor, prince the Neapolitan barons in parliament assembled, in 1442, of Transylvania. This was the beginning of the Thirty the acknowledgment of Ferdinand, as duke of Calabria and Years' War, a war both religious and political, and one of heir to the crown of Naples, thus securing to his favourite the most desolating in the history of modern Europe. In and only son one of his several kingdoms, as Aragon, Sarthe midst of these difficulties Ferdinand was ably sup-dinia, and Sicily devolved upon John of Aragon, Alfonso's ported by his general, Count de Tilly, who reconquered brother. In 1458, after the death of his father, Ferdinand Bohemia and expelled Frederic. Hungary was soon after assumed the crown of Naples. Pope Calixtus III. refused obliged to submit, and Bethlehem Gabor sued for peace. him the investiture, which however was granted to him by Another confederacy was formed against Ferdinand by the Pius II., the successor of Calixtus. His reign began well, Protestant states of Saxony, supported by Christian IV. of but a conspiracy of the barons, who called in John of Anjou, Denmark, who put himself at their head in 1625. Fer- who had some remote claim to the throne, threw the coundinand opposed to him Tilly and Waldstein, or Wallenstein, try into a civil war. Ferdinand, assisted by Scanderbeg, another commander of extraordinary abilities. In two prince of Albania, gave battle to John near Troja in Apulia campaigns the confederates were defeated, Christian was and defeated him completely, in the year 1462. After the driven into his hereditary states, and the peace of Lubeck, battle he concluded a peace with the revolted barons upon 1629, put an end to the war. Ferdinand now adopted conciliatory terms, but in a short time, breaking the treaty, measures of retaliation which drove the Protestants to he put to death two of them, an act which kept alive the despair: he abolished the exercise of the Protestant re-jealousy and fears of the rest. In 1480 Mohammed II. sent ligion in Bohemia; he exiled or put to death the leaders of an armament on the coast of Apulia, which took the town that and other dissident communions; he confiscated their of Otranto and caused great alarm in all Italy. Ferdinand, [roperty; seven hundred noble families were proscribed, however, quickly recalled his son Alfonso, duke of Calabria, and the common people were forced to change their faith. who was then in Tuscany at the head of an army, and who Above 30,000 families, preferring their consciences to their retook Otranto. A fresh conspiracy of the barons broke country, sought refuge in Protestant states. Ferdinand out, encouraged by Pope Innocent VIII., but it was again intended to carry on the same sweeping measures through- repressed, and Ferdinand solemnly promised a general out Germany, but here he adopted a more cautious plan. amnesty. But he kept his word no better than before, for He began by dividing the Protestants or Lutherans from having contrived, on the occasion of the marriage of his the Calvinists, and he called for the execution of a former niece, to collect at Naples most of the leading barons, he act which allowed to the former only the free exercise of arrested them all, and threw them into prison, where most their religion, but condemned the Calvinists to apostacy or of them were strangled. The whole of this tragedy, which exile. He also insisted on the restitution of such eccle- was attended by circumstances of fearful treachery and siastical property as the Protestants had seized since the cruelty, is eloquently related by Porzio in his work, La Contreaty of Passau in 1532. The Protestant princes were giura dei Baroni contra il Re Ferdinando I. Ferdinand compelled in many cases to give up the lands and revenues continued to reign for several years after this, feared and which they had seized to the monastic and collegiate bodies, hated by his subjects, and himself in perpetual anxiety, their former owners. But the Catholic princes prevented which was increased by the advance of Charles VIII. of the entire execution of the decree. They had themselves, France, who was coming for the purpose of asserting his in the general confusion which followed the reformation, claims, derived from the Anjous, to the throne of Naples. seized upon ecclesiastical property, which they did not In the midst of the alarm at the approaching storm, which wish to restore, and they moreover felt jealous of the he had not the means of averting, Ferdinand died in 1494, threatening power of the house of Austria, allied as it was at the age of 71. He was succeeded by his son Alfonso, a to the Spanish branch of the same house. They feared also gloomy and cruel prince, who, terrified at the approach of that they might be made as completely dependent upon the French, abdicated in favour of his son Ferdinand, and the emperor as the grandees of Spain had become upon their retired to a convent in Sicily. king. In this feeling they secretly encouraged their Protestant countrymen in resisting the further execution of the decree. The diet at Ratisbon, on Ferdinand's request that his son Maximilian might be elected king of the Romans, replied by insisting that the emperor should

FERDINAND II. was very young when he found himself occupying a throne threatened by enemies from without and by disaffection from within. He endeavoured to rally his troops against the French, but being forsaken by all, he withdrew to Sicily with his uncle Frederic. The French

occupied Naples, where their conduct soon disgusted the | to reform and improvement seized the opportunity to regam Neapolitans, while the other states of Italy formed a league the ascendancy. This was an epoch of a re-action in the against them in the North. Ferdinand seized the oppor- internal politics of Naples. Arrests were made, and a tunity to ask assistance from Ferdinand V. of Spain, who giunta, or state tribunal, was formed to try the real or present h m his great Captain Gonzalo of Cordova with a body of tended conspirators, three of whom were sentenced to death, troops, who soon reconquered the kingdom of Naples. Fer- others to perpetual imprisonment, but the majority (against dinand returned in triumph to his capital, but did not long whom the judges, notwithstanding all the exertions of the enjoy his prosperity; he died suddenly in 1496, at the age attorney-general, Vanni, could find no evidence), were acof 28 years, regretted by his subjects, who had formed great quitted after four years' confinement. hopes of him from his amiable qualities and abilities. He was succeeded by his uncle Frederic, who was soon after treacherously deprived of his kingdom by his pretended ally, Ferdinand of Spain.

FERDINAND III. of Naples is the same as FERDINAND V. OF SPAIN.

FERDINAND IV. of Naples, afterwards styled Ferdinand I. of the United Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, born in January 175), was the son of Don Carlos of Bourbon, king of the Two Sicilies, afterwards Charles III. of Spain. The life of Ferdinand is remarkable, not so much on account of his personal character, as from the uncommon length of his reign and its many vicissitudes being closely connected with all the great events of Europe during the last half century, as well as the singular good fortune which attended him to the end of his life with little or no exertion on his part. The education of Ferdinand was greatly neglected. He was little more than eight years of age when his father Charles, being called to the throne of Spain by the death of his brother Ferdinand VI., made over to him the kingdom of Naples and Sicily, appointing a council of regency, at the head of which he placed the Marquis Tanucci, an able minister, who however does not seem to have been very anxious about the instruction of his young sovereign. In April 1768, Ferdinand, being now of age, married Maria Carolina of Austria, daughter of Maria Theresa, a princess accomplished, clever, and ambitious, who in fact ruled under her husband's name till her death, assisted by the various ministers who succeeded each other at the helm of affairs, the king himself being generally passive, and his time being much engrossed by hunting, shooting, and other diversions. Yet Ferdinand was by no means deficient in good sense or natural penetration; he often saw things more clearly than those around him, which is manifest from many of his shrewd though blunt remarks which are still remembered at Naples; but his want of instruction, of which he was aware, and his dislike of application, prevented him from exerting or enforcing his own judgment. The first 30 years of his reign, those of the regency included, were for Naples years of peace and comparative happiness; many useful reforms were effected by his ministers, and especially by Tanucci, who continued at the head of affairs till 1777. A detailed account of these reforms, in the various departments of public education, ecclesiastical discipline, feudal jurisdictions, financial economy, and the administration of justice, is given by Colletta, in his able and impartial Storia del Reame di Napoli,' 1834, and also by Count Orloff in the 2nd volume of his Mémoires sur le Royaume de Naples.' Ferdinand was very popular, especially with the lower classes; and as he was the first king born at Naples for centuries past, they called him emphatically our king.'

Tanucci being dismissed in 1777 for having objected to the queen taking her seat in the council of state, Caracciolo and others followed for a short time, until John Acton, an Englishman, and a naval officer in the service of Leopold of Tuscany, was sent for to organize the Neapolitan navy and army, which had fallen into decline during a long season of peace. The advancement of Acton was extremely rapid; he was made general, then captain-general of the kingdom, and lastly premier, or rather sole minister (for the other ministers were merely his creatures), and in this office he remained for many years. His administration was neither so economical nor so wise as that of Tanucci. Things went on however quietly and smoothly for several years, yet a con iderable degree of liberty of speech, and even of the press, prevailed at Naples, and the country was prosperous and the people contented until the breaking out of the French revolution, of which Naples, however remote, felt the shock. The queen being the sister of Marie Antoinette, was indignant at the treatment her relatives of France met with at the hands of the revolutionists; and as many young men at Naples, mostly belonging to the higher ranks of society, seemed to approve of the principles of the revolution, the court took alarm, and the men who had always been averse

The court of Naples had joined the first coalition against France in 1792, and had sent some troops to join the Austrians in the North of Italy, and others with a squadron to the expedition against Toulon. In 1796, however, alarmed by the successes of Bonaparte, a peace was concluded with the Directory by paying a few millions of francs. In 1798, the French having occupied the papal state, the court of Naples formed a secret alliance with Austria, England, and Russia, but, instead of waiting for the opening of the campaign in Lombardy, which was to take place in the following spring, the Neapolitan army, 60,000 strong, began hostilities in November, 1798, and marched upon Rome, which it occupied only for a few days, as the French generals, having collected their forces, attacked and routed several divisions of the Neapolitans, and cut off the communications between the rest; a general panic spread through the army; the king, who had accompanied it as far as Rome, fled back to Naples; Mack, who was his commander-inchief, followed his example; and of the various corps that were left to themselves without any concerted plan or preparations in case of a reverse, some were dispersed or made prisoners, and others made good their retreat to their own frontiers, whither the French followed them closely. The greatest confusion prevailed at the court of Naples; the queen, beset by informers, fancied that the capital was full of conspirators, and determined to withdraw to Sicily. Ferdinand was easily persuaded to do the same, and the royal family left Naples on the 21st of December, 1798. The French meantime were approaching, and the populace, left without a government and excited by denunciations against the Jacobins, rose, murdered a number of persons, and for three days fought desperately against the advancing French in the streets of the capital. The events of Naples in 1799 form a romantic but most tragical episode in the history of the Continental war, and they have become the theme of numerous narratives. The best accounts are given by Colleta, already mentioned, by Cuoco, Saggio Storia sulla Rivoluzione di Napoli,' and in a work called Sketch of The reverses of the Popular Tumults,', London, 1837. French in Lombardy in the spring of 1799, obliged them to abandon Naples, leaving only a small garrison in it. The native republicans, or patriots as they were called, were few, and disliked by the lower classes. Cardinal Ruffo landed in Calabria from Sicily, and preached a sort of political and religious crusade against the French and their partisans, and the whole kingdom was re-conquered for Ferdinand in a short time. A dreadful re-action took place, in which thousands lost their lives, either murdered by the royalists, or condemned by the courts instituted to try all those who were accused of republicanism.

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Ferdinand returned to Naples, and in 1801 he concluded, through the mediation of Russia, a treaty of peace with France. But the past events and the proscriptions that had taken place in his name had destroyed all confidence between the government and the more enlightened part of the nation. In 1805 the court of Naples committed a second political error, worse than that of 1799. While professing to be at peace with France, it entered secretly into the coalition against that power; and while Napoleon was defeating the Austrians on the Danube, Russian and English troops were landed at Naples to join the army of that kingdom for the avowed purpose of attacking the French in the north of Italy. The consequence was, that Napoleon, after his victory at Austerlitz, declared that the Bourbon dy nasty had ceased to reign at Naples,' and he sent a force under Massena to occupy that kingdom. Ferdinand and his court withdrew to Sicily a second time, where, being protected by the English forces, they remained till 1815, A desultory but cruel warfare was carried on for several years in Calabria between the partisans of Ferdinand and those of Murat, whom Napoleon had made king of Naples, the details of which are vividly described by Boita, Stra d' Italia,' 24th book, towards the end. But even in Sicily the reign of Ferdinand did not run smooth. The court wa

extravagant in its expenditure, the queen was as arbitrary | Ferdinand, after some demur, obtained leave of the parliaas ever, and great jealousy existed between the Sicilians ment to proceed to the congress in December, 1820, leaving and the Neapolitan courtiers and emigrants. But Sicily his son Francis as his vicegerent at Naples. In February, had a parliament consisting of three orders, barons, clergy, 1821, Ferdinand, by a letter written from Laybach, signified and deputies of the towns, and the parliament would not to his son that the allied sovereigns were determined not sanction the levying of fresh taxes. The queen then ordered to acknowledge the actual constitutional government as the imprisonment of five of the most influential barons. established at Naples, deeming it incompatible with the Meantime it was suspected that that princess, who had con- peace of that country and the security of the neighbouring ceived a dislike against the English, whom she considered states; but that they wished Ferdinand himself, assisted as a check upon her, entertained secret communications by the wisest and most able among his subjects, to give to with Napoleon, who in 1810 had married her grand-niece, his kingdom institutions calculated to secure peace and Maria Louisa. A conspiracy against the English was dis- prosperity to the country. Soon afterwards the Austrian covered at Messina. All these circumstances obliged the army passed the Po, moving on towards Naples. The parliaEnglish government to interfere, and in January, 1812, ment of Naples determined upon resistance, but at the first Ferdinand resigned his authority into the hands of his encounter, near Rieti, a Neapolitan division was defeated, eldest son, Francis. A parliament was assembled, which and the rest of the army being alarmed at the thought of abolished feudality, and framed a new constitution upon a fighting against the will of their own king, disbanded, and the liberal basis. The queen's influence was now at an end, Austrians entered Naples without any further opposition at and after some fruitless intrigues she embarked in 1813 for the end of March, 1821. Ferdinand soon afterwards returned Constantinople, from whence she went to Vienna, where to his capital on what may be styled his third restoration. she died in the following year. For an account of these The leading constitutionalists were allowed to emigrate; important Sicilian transactions see Botta, and also a work but of those who remained some were tried and sent to styled De la Sicile et de ses Rapports avec l'Angleterre à the Presidii. The government again became absolute, but l'époque de la Constitution de 1812, Paris, 1827. In 1814 not so lenient or liberal as it was before 1820. After Ferdinand resumed the reins of government, and opened reigning four years longer, Ferdinand died suddenly on the in person the Sicilian parliament of that year. In 1815, morning of the 4th of January, 1825, aged seventy-six, after the defeat of Joachim Murat by the Austrians, Fer- having been king sixty-five years. He was succeeded by dinand was recalled to the throne of Naples, and in June of his son, Francis I. that year he returned to his old capital. In a well written proclamation to the Neapolitans he promised them peace, a complete forgetfulness of the past, impartial justice, and a steady administration. And now that he for the first time acted by himself, he kept his word. The government of Ferdinand at Naples from 1815 till 1820 was mild, impartial, and orderly. This is attested by Colletta, a liberal writer, b. viii. sec. 50, of his History. But in Sicily, having dissolved the parliament, he never convoked it afterwards. By a decree of December, 1816, he assumed the title of Ferdinand I., King of the United Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, declaring that Sicily and Naples formed no longer distinct states, but were both subject to the same system of government.

Meantime a secret society, called Carbonari, were spreading themselves fast through the kingdom, especially among the landed proprietors in the provinces, and consequently through the ranks of the provincial militia. The land tax, which was more than 20 per cent. on the rent, made this class of people dissastisfied and ready for change. The origin of this society or sect, for it was religious as well as political, is somewhat obscure: it seems to have come frora France into Italy, and was established in the kingdom of Naples under Murat, with his sanction; but was afterwards proscribed by him, and it then found favour with the court of Sicily. (Memoirs of Secret Societies of the South of Italy, London, 1821. See also Botta, book xxiv., and Colletta, book viii.) Colletta thus describes its tendency: The Carbonari spread among the minor orders of society, who, rallying round the principle of Civil equality, move forward in a body pressing upon the higher orders; an impulse which in a virtuous and moral community tends to establish democratic institutions, but which in our own corrupt and profligate state of society tends only to a change of matters under the forms and the language of democracy.'

FERDINAND, or FERNANDO I., styled the Great, the son of Sancho, called Mayor, king of Navarra and Castile, succeeded his father in 1035, and having defeated and killed Veremund, king of Leon, in 1038, succeeded him as king of Leon and of Asturias. Navarra became the appanage of Ferdinand's brother Garcia. Ferdinand, called the Great, made war against the Moors, whom he drove away from the northern part of Portugal as far as the Mondego. He died in 1065, leaving three sons, Sanctius, to whom he gave Castile; Alfonso, who had Leon; and Garcia, who retained Gallicia.

FERDINAND II., second son of Alonso VIII. of Castile and Leon, succeeded his father in the latter kingdom only in 1157. He was engaged in wars with Alfonso Henrique, king of Portugal, and also with his own nephew, Alonso of Castile. He died in 1187.

FERDINAND III., called the Saint, son of Alonso IX., king of Leon and of Berengaria of Castile, inherited both crowns after the death of his parents. Ferdinand was successful in his wars against the Moors beyond any of his predecessors: he took from them Badajoz and Merida in 1230, Cordova in 1236, and Jaen, Seville, and Murcia in 1243. He was making preparations for carrying the war into Africa when he died, in 1252. Ferdinand collected the laws of his predecessors into a code; he established the council of Castile; he cleared his states from robbers, and checked the arbitrary acts of the nobles. He was one of the most illustrious sovereigns of the old Spanish monarchy. His son Alonso X., called the Wise,' succeeded him on the throne.

FERDINAND IV. succeeded his father, Sancho IV., in 1295, while yet a minor. His reign was engrossed chiefly by wars with the Moors; he died in 1312, and was succeeded by his son Alonso XI.

FERDINAND V. of Castile and II. of Aragon, son of John II. of Aragon, married in 1469 Isabella, daughter of John II. of Castile, and heiress to that crown, by whom he had several daughters, one of whom married Emmanuel,

On the 2nd of July, 1820, a military revolt, led by two subalterns, broke out in a regiment of cavalry stationed near Naples; other troops joined in it, and the Carbonari of the capital and provinces openly espoused its cause, de-king of Portugal; another, Catherine, was married to manding a representative constitution for the kingdom. Henry VIII. of England, and the other, Joanna, married Ferdinand, pressed by his ministers, promised to establish Philip, archduke of Austria, son of the emperor Maximilian a constitution in a given time; but the Carbonari would I. Ferdinand succeeded to the crowns of Aragon and of not wait, saying it was better to adopt one already made, Sicily by the death of his father, and his wife Isabella had namely, that of the Cortes of Spain, and thus the Spanish already succeeded in her own right, and with the sanction of constitution was proclaimed, and a parliament was con- the Cortes, to the throne of Castile by the death of her voked at Naples. Meantime the Sicilians, ever jealous brother, Henry IV., in 1472. Thus were the two great of their nationality, demanded a separate parliament for divisions of Spain united, though the two kingdoms rethemselves and a repeal of the union of the two king-mained under separate administrations, Castile was still doms, which the parliament at Naples refusing, a revolt governed in the name of the queen until the death of Isabroke out at Palermo, which was put down after much bella in 1504, followed by that of the archduke Philip in blood bed. Soon after, the sovereigns of Austria, Russia, 1506, when Ferdinand, owing to the insanity of his daughter and Prussia, assembled at Troppau, wrote to King Ferdi- Joanna, assumed the government of Castile, which he reDand, inviting him to a conference at Laybach, in Carinthia, tained till his death, when his grandson, Charles V., sucwithout which they stated that they could not acknowledge ceeded to the whole splendid inheritance. the new system of government established at Naples,

Ferdinand took from the Moors the kingdom of Gra