Glacier Bay is the iciest of the inlets which fringe the coast. Both to the north and south of it the glaciers are generally less lavishly snow-fed, and of course give birth to fewer icebergs. Of its nine glaciers of the first order, the Muir is the largest. It is about 50 miles long, the main trunk below the confluence of the principal tributaries is about 25 miles wide and probably about 1,500 feet deep. The bergdischarging part of the sea-wall is less than two miles wide, rises above the water to a height of 250 to 300 feet, and sinks to a depth of about 700 feet.

The grandest of the Prince William Sound glaciers are the Columbia, Barry, Harvard, Yale and Harriman. Some of the smallest of the noble company descend flowery mountainsides in the wildest and most imposing ice-cata

racts.

Residual glaciers from a mile to 10 or 12 miles long, including névé, are distributed throughout the Rocky Mountain ranges from lat. 43° to 53°. The greater number lie between 50° and 52° 30' at the heads of the Saskatchewan, Athabasca and Columbia rivers. The largest groups are magnificent rags and patches of an ancient ice-sheet, some of them covering an area of 40 to nearly 100 square miles and sending down river-like glaciers six to eight miles long.

Glaciers of the third order abound on the Alps, the Pyrenees, the Caucasus, the Scandinavian Peninsula, the Andes, the lofty snowy ranges of Asia and on the mountains of New Zealand.

More than 1,000 with an area of about 1,200 square miles have been surveyed and named in the Alps. The largest are river-like, 10 to 15 miles long, descend into the forests and terminate at an elevation of 4,000 to 6,000 feet. Most of the smaller ones are like masses of pure snow, and terminate about 2,000 feet higher.

The Caucasus is perhaps about as heavily ice-laden as the Alps. Few of its glaciers are known to descend much lower than 6,000 and 7,000 feet. Those of the Pyrenees are comparatively small.

Many of the glaciers of Norway pour grandly down from extensive névé fields to within 1,000 feet of the sea-level. A few approach the shore and may rank as glaciers of the second order, while one, the only one in Europe of the first order, discharges into Jokul Fiord, near the 70th parallel. Between the larger glaciers flowing toward the heads of the fords there are many hanging and cascading glaciers, ranged along the brows of plateaus, some of which pour over precipices in separate bergs with loud roaring like that of glaciers discharging into the sea. At the foot of the cliffs the battered fragments are welded by the accumulating weight and thus these wild icestreams, after their plunge through the air, are made whole again and flow quietly on their way as "regenerated glaciers," the space between their upper and lower parts being only a wider and more complete crevasse.

The low-descending New Zealand glaciers almost rival those of the Alps in size, while their beauty is greatly enhanced by the rich vegetation through which they flow.

The glaciers of South America are distributed along almost the whole extent of the

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Andes. According to Whymper those under the equator attain their greatest size on the snow-laden, storm-beaten summits of Antisana, Cayambe and Chimborazo. On Cayambe 12 glaciers of considerable size were counted, flowing from the central névé reservoir, descending to about 15,000 feet above sea-level. To the south of lat. 46° many approach the sea.

On the lofty mountain chains of Asia, especially the snowy Himalaya, Karakoram, HinduKush, Kuen-Lun and Thian-Shan, thousands of little known residual glaciers still exist. The largest which have been explored are the magnificent Biafo and Baltoro Karakoram glaciers, 30 and 35 miles long, descending to about 11,500 and 12,000 feet.

Excepting Australia, which seems to have lost all its glaciers, Africa is glacially the poorest of the continents. Its only known glaciers are those of the two great snowy mountains, Kenia and Killimanjara, near the equator.

The Arctic islands-Jan Mayen, Nova Zembla, Spitzbergen, Franz-Joseph Land and many others are heavily ice-laden. Their largest glaciers are broad sheets discharging magnificent bergs into the frozen sea.

But it is on Greenland and the South Polar lands that glacier ice reaches its grandest development. Excepting a narrow interrupted strip around its shores, Greenland lies buried beneath a continuous mantle of ice thousands of feet in thickness, through which only the rock tops of its highest peaks, called "nunataks," protrude. From this ice-cap huge glaciers pour into the sea, discharging icebergs of enormous dimensions, some of which sail into the Atlantic thousands of miles from home.

Still greater is the South Polar ice-cap, probably over two miles in thickness. The sea front of some of the glacier currents it pours forth are from 100 to over 400 miles wide, from which flat-topped island-like icebergs 5 to 10 miles long are discharged. Here the great cosmical winter of the Glacial Period still exists in severe, serene grandeur.

Greater Extension of Glaciers.- That a great part of the earth in both the northern and southern hemispheres, now warm and fruitful, was recently covered by flowing, grinding ice, is well known. Over the eastern half of North America from the Arctic regions to lat. 40° or lower, moraines and beds of moraine material variously modified, grooved, scored and polished surfaces, with other characteristic traces of glacial action, are displayed in wonderful abundance and uniformity.

Along the mountain ranges of the west side of the continent they extend still farther south. The broad Rocky Mountain chain and the plains along its flanks abound in glacial traces on a grand scale. On the Sierra Nevada polished and striated rock surfaces, the most evanescent of glacier inscriptions may still be found as far south as lat. 36°; while a degree or two farther north, at an elevation of 7,000 to 8,000 feet above the sea, there are broad glacier pavements in so perfect a state of preservation that they reflect the sunbeams like glass and attract the attention of every observer.

Over the greater part of Oregon, Washington, British Columbia and the Arctic and subArctic regions about Bering Sea and northwestern Alaska, the rocks in general are less resisting, and the weathering they have been

subjected to is more destructive. Therefore the superficial records of glaciation are less clear in these northern regions than in California.

But in all glaciated regions there are other monuments of ice action which endure for tens of thousands of years after the simpler traces we have been considering have vanished. These are the sculpture and configuration of the landscape in general,- the canyons, valleys, fiords, mountains, ridges and roches moutonnées, the forms, trends and correlations of which are specifically glacial and almost imperishable. These also, it is true, suffer incessant waste, being constantly written upon by other agents. But because they are so colossal in size and peculiar in form and arrangement they continue to stand out clear and telling through every after-inscription, showing how great the ancient glaciers must have been, and how great are the geographical and topographical changes they have produced. Where man is busiest, even in the parks and gardens of New York, glaciated rocks shine and call attention to the story of the Ice Period; and in orchards growing on moraine soil around the town of Victoria on the west side of the continent, fruitful boughs drop apples and peaches on the edges of glacier pavements, while the harbor rocks are still bright notwithstanding the centuries of waveaction they have been subject to.

Only yesterday, so to speak, much of our continent was buried under a dreary expanse of ice, as Greenland is to-day. It has left its trace in lake and swamp, in polished outcrop and rounded hill, in countless islands and fringing fiords. Under the influence, however, of a gradually warming climate, the glaciers have wasted away into insignificant remnants. See GLACIAL PERIOD; PLEISTOCENE EPOCH; GEOLOGY.

Bibliography. Agassiz, L., Systeme Glaciale) (Paris 1847); Arctowski, H., 'Les Glaciers (Antwerp 1908); and 'Die Antarktischen Eisverhältniese) (Gotha 1903); Bonney, T. G., 'Ice Work, Past and Present (New York 1896); Forbes, J. D., Travels in the Alps' (Edinburgh 1845); and Norway and Its Glaciers (Edinburgh 1853); Geikie, J., The Great Ice Age) (New York 1895); Gilbert, G. K., The Harriman Alaska Expedition' (1904); Harper, A. P., 'Pioneer Work in the Alps of New Zealand' (London 1896); Heim, A., Handbuch der Gletscherkunde (Stuttgart 1885); Hobbs, W. H., 'Characteristics of Existing Glaciers' (New York 1911); Larden, W., 'Argentine Plains and Andine Glaciers' (London 1911); Matthes, F. E., Mount Rainier and its Glaciers' (United States Interior Department 1914); Meyer, H., Across East African Glaciers' (London 1891); Russell, I. C., Glaciers of North America' (Boston 1897); Scott, R. S., The Great Ice Barrier and the Inland Ice- Antarctic (Geographical Journal, London, Vol. 46, pp. 436–447, 1915); Sherzer, W. H., Glaciers of the Canadian Rockies and Selkirks' (Smithsonian Institution 1907); Tarr, R. S., and Martin. L., Alaskan Glacier Studies' (Washington 1914); Tyndall J., Glaciers of the Alps (Boston 1861); Wright, G. F., The Ice Age in North America' (New York 1902), and Man and the Glacial Period'; Wright, W. B., The Quaternary Ice Age'; Zeitschrift für Gletscherkunde (Berlin 1893 to date).

GLACIER BAY, Alaska, a fiord 60 miles long north of Icy Strait. It extends in a northerly direction through the Saint Elias Mountains which discharge several glaciers into it. The Muir Glacier is the largest, being three miles broad at the sea and about 200 feet high. Its area is 1,250 square miles, or about that of the State of Rhode Island. The bay is so encumbered with ice that navigation, there is attended with considerable danger.

GLACIER BEAR, a small gray or "blue" bear (Ursus emmonsi) of the Saint Elias Alps, Alaska. See BEARS.

GLACIER NATIONAL PARK, The, a public park set aside by presidential proclamation pursuant to authority conferred by the act of 11 May 1910. It lies just south of the Canadian line, including portions of Teton and Flathead counties, Mont. It includes that part of the front range of the Rocky Mountains in Montana. In shape it is an irregular rectangle. On the west it is bounded by the north fork of Flathead River, on the south by the middle fork of Flathead River and the Great Northern Railroad and on the east by the Blackfeet Indian Reservation. The Continental Divide extends through the park from northwest to southeast. The eastern face is precipitous. Long ridges or shoulders extend from the Divide westward. This mountain chain is not a single narrow ridge, as may be assumed from its appearance at a distance, but is many miles in width, varying from 18 to 25 miles, and consists of a network of ridges and high spurs. The mountain mass has been regarded as two distinct ranges, the Livingston range on the west, and the Lewis range on the east. The Continental Divide joins the two ranges at Flattop Mountain by a low pass. The park covers 915,000 acres, or about 1,450 square miles. The greatest length at any place of the irregular outline is about 45 miles. The greatest width is along the Canadian-United States boundary line, nearly 35 miles. There are about 80 glaciers between five square miles and a few acres in area. These glaciers, scattered throughout the area, give the name to the park. There are about 250 lakes, from those covering a few acres to those of larger size, several miles in length. The lakes are surrounded by steep and beautiful mountains. One of the interesting features of the park is the peculiarly rugged topography, the abrupt mountains in this part of the range being largely in the park area. There are mountains with vertical walls from a few hundred to more than 4,000 feet in height. Glaciers are perched high along the range in protected places, with waterfalls and cascades from a few feet to 2,500 feet. The western slope of the mountains is gradual and covered with timber, while the eastern face is abrupt. One passes at once from the rugged peaks, glaciers and waterfalls to the smooth, treeless, glaciated plains. The high summits are not regularly arranged, some occurring in the Continental Divide, others on the spurs projecting from either side. While the mountains are not high they rise from low plain or valley, 3,153 feet elevation at Lake McDonald and 4,186 at Waterton Lake on the north. They rise to heights of over 10,000 feet, with imposing grandeur. The peaks rising more than 10,000 feet above the sea are Mount Cleveland,

At

10,438; Mount Stimpson, 10,155; Kintla Peak, 10,100; Mount Jackson, 10,023; Mount Siveh, 10,004. The Garden Wall is a name applied to the stupendous portion of the Divide between Swift Current Pass and Gould Mountain, above Grinnell Glacier. This portion of the mountains is of marvelous beauty and grandeur. Other precipitous walls of great height are seen on the way from Saint Mary Lake to Lake Ellen Wilson on the trail over Gunsight Pass. Triple Divide Peak the water flows from its sides into three oceans through Norris Creek and Saint Mary Lake to Hudson Bay and the Arctic; through Cut Bank Creek into the Missouri and the Gulf of Mexico; and through Nyack Creek into Flathead River, thence to Clark's Fork of the Columbia River and the Pacific. The abruptness, beauty and magnificence of the mountains have been produced by uplifting and faulting of the rocks. Breaking in the rock strata in a number of places occurred, and the rocks on the west side of the folds were pushed upward and eastward over the then surface rocks. The mountain rocks were shoved over the rocks of the plains, producing an overthrust fault. Through these hard and precipitous cliffs streams have cut through the overthrust mass and down into the soft rocks of the plains. This overthrust fault may readily be traced on the surface, as it makes an irregular zigzag from spur to valley. This thrust has been traced through and beyond the park in either direction. The full extent is not yet determined, but in one place the rocks have been shoved over the underlying former surface a distance of 15 miles, the direction being northeast. Streams and glaciation have carved the mountains in later times.

Of the 250 lakes of the park about 50 are large enough to command more or less attention. Lake McDonald is perhaps best known. Its lower end is but a short distance from the Belton entrance to the park. Saint Mary Lake (upper) is the first park point touched by travelers from the Glacier Park (station) entrance. Three lakes with name Two Medicine retain that Indian name. Hidden Lake lies high in the almost inaccessible mountains. Grinnell and Gunsight lakes lie at the foot of mountains of the same name. Waterton is partly in the park, partly in Canada on the north. Iceberg Lake, visited without difficulty, lies at the foot of a 3,000-foot cliff on the north side of Mount Wilbur. Kintla lakes are in the northwestern part, as yet rarely visited by the tourist or traveler. Avalanche Lake lies below the shoulder on which is Sperry Glacier. Bowman, Quarts, Logging and Trout lakes, all of elongated form, are on the western slope between high ridges. The many smaller unnamed lakes in various parts of the park, and some that formerly had names, have been given names of women, as Sue, Helen, Janot, Isabel, Lena, etc.

The depths of a number of the lakes have been determined. They are usually deepest at the upper end. Although formerly supposed to be "bottomless" they are not as deep as reports would indicate, as seen from the following: Lake McDonald, 387 feet; Avalanche, 63 feet; Bowman, lower end, 90 feet; Waterton, 317 fect; Haunted Lake (Janot Lake), 10 feet; Dixon (Francis Lake), 75 feet; McDermott, 36 feet; Iceberg, 149 feet; Saint Mary (upper),

200 feet; Gunsight, 63 feet; Louise (Ellen Wilson Lake), 244 feet; Peary, at upper end of Sperry trial, 32 feet; upper Two-Medicine, 65 feet; Red Eagle, 58 feet.

Many of the lakes are without fish, due to high falls below the lakes. Gunsight and upper Two-Medicine were stocked by David Ross of Kalispell in 1915, and in 1916 he also stocked McDermott, Josephine, Grinnell and Ellen Wilson. The larger lakes are accessible for fish and are well stocked. The park glaciers are but remnants of the larger ice masses which in former ages extended far into or over the valley on the east and down the stream and river valleys on the western slopes. Of the number previously mentioned only a few are of special importance. Sperry is easiest to reach. In a day from Lake McDonald one may reach the glacier, spend a couple of hours on the ice and return. Sperry is probably three-quarters of a mile long and over a half-mile wide, much crevassed toward the lower edge. Blackfeet Glacier is the largest. Blackfeet and Red Eagle on the north or Hudson Bay side, and Harrison and Pompelly on the south or Pacific side of the Continental Divide, are really one continuous mass of ice. They extend along the Divide for more than three and a half miles, and cover a surface of between 5 and 10 square miles with solid ice of unknown depth. Blackfeet Glacier is easily reached from Gunsight Lake. The most imposing glacier and the one most difficult to reach is Harrison. It seems to barely hang on the steep side of Mount Jackson. Grinnell Glacier covers less than a square mile. It rests on a steep shelf at the foot of the Garden Wall and between Grinnell and Gould Mountains, both of which are magnificent park features. This glacier is one of the beautiful natural objects of the park. It is reached either from Grinnell Lake or from Granite Park, and without special trouble. Chaney Glacier lies high on the Divide, Hudson Bay side, but can be reached quite readily from the main trail over Flattop Mountain. It is not large, perhaps a half mile in extent in any direction, and flanks the precipitous walls of Mount Merritt. The trail over Swift Current Pass gives a fine view of the small but wonderfully beautiful Swift Current Glacier. Kintla and Agassiz glaciers, on Kintla and Kinnerty peaks, are high up and difficult to reach, and are also in a portion of the park seldom visited, the high mountains near the northern boundary. Rainbow and Vulture glaciers are of considerable size but rarely visited. The original trails in the park were made by hunters, surveyors, prospectors and Indians, and were in many cases the poorest kind of passageways. They were steep, boggy, narrow and dangerous at times and in places. Since the establishment of the section as a park the trails have been vastly improved. They are now easily traversed, are wide, have low grade and are well walled and bridged. New trails are being built annually.

Glacier Park is a wonderland of mountain crags, dizzy cliffs, dashing waterfalls, clear lakes, eternal snow and ice, primæval forests, wild game, blue sky and brilliant sunshine. Here the works of Nature have not been marred by the hand of man.

MORTON J. ELROD, Director of Biological Station, University of Montana.