the Mount, was exaggerated, misleading and transitory, but the influence of his chief work Also sprach Zarathustra' (1883-91), upon the literature and the intellectual life of Germany in general has been very great. A pathfinder and perhaps a prophet, who fell a victim to the inner struggles of a time of transition, his message produced above all a deep longing for new religious and ethical values and a revival of the idealism of the classical and romantic period. The return to the inborn idealism of the German mind without sacrificing the best attainments of the realistic movement can be seen in the career of Gerhardt Hauptmann (b. 1862), Germany's greatest contemporary dramatist. It is noticeable already in the fairy drama 'Hannele's Himmelsfahrt) (1893) and becomes more pronounced in the subsequent plays 'Die versunkene Glocke' (1896), 'Michael Kramer (1900), 'Der arme Heinrich (1902),

etc.

The recovery of the domain of imaginative freedom, the emancipation of personality and the reverence for beauty which the NeoRomantic revival of the last decades brought, are evident also in the new novel and in the new lyric of this latest period. While there is no genius of the depth and greatness of a Goethe and a Schiller, or even of a Novalis and Hölderlin among the present writers, there is an abundance of eminent talent of which any country might be proud. The work of novelists like Thomas Mann ('Die Buddenbrooks, 1901), Arthur Schnitzler, Clara Viebig ('Die Wacht am Rhein,' 1902), Isolde Kurz (Italienische Erzählungen,' 1895), Hermann Hesse (Peter Camenzind,' 1904), and Ricarda Huch (Ludolf Urslen,' 1893) and of lyricists like Richard Dahmel, Hugo von Hofmannschal and Stefan George- to mention only a few representative names-bears witness to the weightiness of content and the finish of artistic workmanship at which the German literature of the present has arrived.

Bibliography.-Gervinus, G., 'Geschichte der poetischen Nationalliteratur der Deutschen' (2d ed., 1871-74); Koberstein, A., Grundriss der Geschichte der deutschen Nationalliteratur) (6th ed., 1884); Goedecke, K., Grundriss zur Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung) (2d ed., 1884 ff.); Wackernagel, W., Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung) (2d ed., 1879-94); Scherer, W., 'Geschichte der deutschen Literatur (10th ed., 1905), English translation by Mrs. Conybeare (new ed., 1906); Vogt, F., und Koch, Max, Geschichte der deutschen Literatur (2d ed., 1902); Bartels, A., Geschichte der deutschen Literatur) (1901-02); Biese, A., 'Deutsche Literaturgeschichte) (1907– 11); Robertson, J. G., History of German Literature (1902); Francke, Kuno, History of German Literature) (6th ed., 1903); Koegel, R., 'Geschichte der deutschen Literatur bis zum Ausgang des Mittelalters' (1894-97); Hettner, H., Geschichte der deutschen Literatur im 18. Jahrhundert (4th ed., 1894-95); Meyer, R. M., 'Die deutsche Literatur des 19. Jahrhunderts' (4th ed., 1910); Bartels, A., Die deutsche Dichtung der Gegenwart (7th ed., 1907); Lewisohn, Ludwig, 'The Spirit of Modern German Literature' (1916).

JULIUS GOEBEL,

Professor of Germanic Languages in the University of Illinois.

9. HISTORY OF SCIENCE AND PHILOSOPHY. The German nation has often been called a people of "thinkers." That had perhaps in the past sometimes a slighting implication, as if the Germans lived in a world of dreams and were unfit for success in the practical world of reality; only the last decades have removed completely such a tacit meaning, since the German Empire has proved itself not less strong in its achievements in commerce and industry and politics than in the fields of science and scholarship. Yet, on the whole, it was at all times a sincere acknowledgment of that German contribution to the progress of human civilization which has been most original and most lasting. German earnestness and thoroughness, German love of truth and of freedom, have blended, at least twice since the days of Leibnitz, into a productiveness of knowledge which is not paralleled in the world.

1. The most valuable contribution of the earliest times was the historiography done in the German cloisters. Their "annals" were faithful work and Einhardt's 'Life of Charlemagne (written_820) is a noble piece of history writing. But the scholarly thought was still essentially imitative. When in the 9th century the Benedictine Rhabanus Maurus in the cloisters of Fulda wrote his encyclopædia De Universo,' in 20 books setting forth the status of German knowledge in the time of Charlemagne, it was on the whole a repetition of that which Isidor of Sevilla had brought together in the 7th century. All thought about nature was controlled by the ancients. And when in the 11th century a new European movement of thought was growing, the great scholastic effort to harmonize belief and reason, France, Italy and England gave the signal. Yet Germans, as, for instance, Hugo, Count of Blankenburg, took an important part, and Albert von Ballstädt, called Albertus Magnus (1193-1280), was one of the deepest and most brilliant scholastic thinkers, whose knowledge of natural science, too, was far superior to his age. Theologians and philosophers of repute, like Thomas von Strassburg, followed in the 14th century and certainly no thinker of the 15th century equalled the Cardinal Nicolaus von Cusa (1401-61), who combined scholasticism and Platonism, mathematics and theology. In the meantime Germany had founded its famous seats of higher learning, the universities, which have been always at the same time schools for the professional training of clergymen, teachers, doctors and lawyers and centres of productive scholarship. (See GERMANY, UNIVERSITY SYSTEM IN). Through the 13th century the University of Paris was the point of crystallization for scholasticism; in 1348 the first German university was founded in Prague, soon after that the University of Vienna and Western Germany followed immediately with Heidelberg (1385) and Cologne (1388). The political disturbances in Boehmen brought about a secession in Prague, and its immigrating scholars founded the University of Leipzig (1409). These new centres of scholarly influence increased the independence of German scholasticism of the dogmas of Paris, and in the declining period of medieval thought the German systems of nominalistic philosophy played an important rôle.

The opposition to the hairsplitting rational

ism of scholastic thought came from two movements which better expressed the German instincts: mysticism (q.v.) and humanism (q.v.). Mystical speculation became influential from the beginning of the 14th century; in an immediate personal unity with God there was sought a deeper knowledge than that of Church and university. Meister Eckhart's pantheistic mysticism, a Christian neo-platonism, stands with such daring independence against the doctrines of the hierarchy that it must be acknowledged as the first original German philosophy, in spite of its unsystematic character. The mys

tical schools develop themselves, especially in western Germany, through the 15th and 16th centuries and emphasize now the theological interests or even the practical_religion (Thomas à Kempis, 'Imitation of Christ'), now the naturalistic interests. The mystical study of nature was most strongly influenced by the physician Paracelsus (1493-1541). His aim was a fundamental reform of medicine, which had still the stamp of Galen and Avicenna. But to understand man's body the microcosmos must be understood as image of the macrocosmos and thus natural science, astronomy, and theology become the basis of medicine. His numerous writings influenced, through all Europe, medicine, alchemy, and theosophy. The last great mystic was Jacob Boehme (1575-1624), whose speculations concerning God's relation to the world and its evils became influential through the following centuries.

Far more systematic and scholarly was the opposition which arose against scholasticism from the humanistic side. The European Renaissance which flourished from the 14th to the 16th century found nowhere a more enthusiastic echo than in Germany. The best minds entered into its service and here, too, the movement took a threefold form: it created the historical æsthetic interest in the literary treasures of classical antiquity, it opened the eyes to nature and it liberated from the mediæval onesidedness of christianized Aristotelianism. The time thus demanded philology, natural science, and independent philosophy. The great philological movement was carried by Germans like Johann Wessel, Rudolph Agricola, Johann Reuchlin (1455-1521), whose handbooks and editions stimulated the study of Latin and Greek throughout Germany, and who at the same time inaugurated the study of the Hebrew language in western Europe; Erasmus of Rotterdam (1457-1537), the most eminent scholar and the most witty writer of his time, who published the first edition of the Greek New Testament, and whose writings fill 24 folio volumes; and above all the "teacher of Germany," Philipp Melanchthon (1497-1560). Famous as theologian and diplomatist, he desired to be in first line philologist and expounder of the classics. For 40 years he taught in Wittenberg. His 'Loci Communes' appeared in 60 editions during his lifetime.

The return to nature and the striving for scientific knowledge is expressed in great scholars like the mathematicians and astronomers Nicholas von Cusa, Georg Peurbach, Regiomontanus (1436-76), famous for his 'Ephemerides ab Anno'; Martin Stöffler, and epoch-making Copernicus (1472-1543), whose discovery that the planets moved around the

sun was worked out in 'De Orbium Celestium Revolutionibus. The movement culminated in Johann Keppler (1571-1630), who discovered that the planetary orbits are elliptic and that the squares of the periods of revolution of any two planets are to each other as the cubes of their mean distances from the sun.

Humanism thus brought to Germany ample results in the fields of philology and natural science, but seemed without such results in that field in which the other countries gained most by the Renaissance: philosophy. The German philosophical humanistic reaction against mediavalism (q.v.) and scholasticism (q.v.) was inhibited by the religious movement which absorbed Germany's metaphysical energies — Protestantism (q.v.). The Protestant religion, no doubt, ultimately reinforces knowledge and scholarship. Its appeal to the sources, its attack on authority, liberates the spirit of criticism and research. The great progress of Germany's scholarship in all fields in the 19th century is the work both of the Protestant parts of Germany and of the Catholic regions. German philosophy, more than any other branch of knowledge, shows the Protestant character from Leibnitz to Kant and Fichte and Hegel. But in the days of the new awakening, when Italy and France and Holland and England produced great philosophical systems, Protestantism necessarily inhibited the metaphysical movement in Germany.

Scholasticism had been a union of Church theology with rationalistic philosophy, an effort to bring the religious belief into harmony with reason. The Reformation agreed, of course, with the new humanistic antagonism against those scholastic systems, but not in the interest of an independent philosophy, rather in the interest of an independent theology - independent alike of the Church and of abstract logic, faithful only to the individual_religious instinct and to the revelation of the Scriptures. Martin Luther, with his mystical tendency, had no sympathy with the logical definitions of human thought and no trust in the power of merely human intellect. The humanists who in the first decades of the 16th century defeated the scholastic world and who fought for literaryæsthetic ideals and platonistic philosophy soon felt that the Lutheran movement was unfriendly to the cherished arguments. It is true, Zwingli stood nearer to philosophy, and Melanchthon became a most influential teacher of philosophical doctrines; his philosophical writings, not only the commentaries to ancient philosophers, remained the best books of Protestant Germany for a century. Yet Melanchthon, too, was more original as theologian than as philosopher. The theological discussions filled the time and reached the masses, and the humanistic movement, which fascinated the few, was necessarily the loser in Germany. The increase of religious strife was accompanied by a decrease in independent interests of thought throughout the land. The lowest point was reached when the Thirty Years' War destroyed the power and prosperity of the commonwealth; the moral and intellectual energies of Germany seemed paralyzed and German universities and German scholarly interest had never so little dignity and authority in the world as through the first two-thirds of the 17th century. Naturalists and philosophers like J. E. Šturm or

Joachim Jungis stood under the influence of the great French thinkers, and even the famous jurist Samuel Pufendorf (1632-94), the first German teacher of natural law, is under foreign leadership. Indeed, the neighboring countries had incomparably better conditions for scholarly activity than the devastated land of Germany, and while they did their utmost to reinforce the spirit of productive scholarship through the founding of academies and the high social position of the scholars, Germany had no academies and no protectors of knowledge: university life itself became vulgar and barbaric.

The new spirit had thus to come from foreign lands. The French language and literature and philosophy entered at first the courts of Germany and soon after its universities; the humanistic neo-classical interests were replaced by the more "modern" efforts which had been developing in the neighboring country since the days of Descartes. The universal thinker who stands at the threshhold of a new and better time is Leibnitz.

2. Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibnitz (16461716), a man of the great world, brought German thought in contact with the advanced scientific spirit of France, Holland and England. Through his influence the Berlin Academy was founded in 1700 with the aim to create a place for the real advancement of knowledge at a time when the universities felt, on the whole, satisfied with handing down the scholarly traditions. He created the most elegant instrument of natural science: the differential calculus, which he published (1684), in his essay 'Nova methodus pro maximis et minimis. But still more important was his metaphysical system. It shared with Descartes and Spinoza the rationalistic belief in the power of transcending experience through reason, but Descartes' sharp separation of mind and body and Spinoza's monism were left behind by Leibnitz's "monadology." His monads, held together by preestablished harmony, represent a continuous series of simple substances which are without windows, each containing the whole world as perceptions, but each apperceiving only a varying part of them. His system fulfils in an original way the purpose of every great philosophy: to justify and to harmonize both the causal, mechanical, and the teleological idealistic knowledge of the time. And thus Germany had finally, as the last of European nations, a real philosopher who was to introduce the enlightenment of the 18th century.

While Leibnitz brought the modern interests to the German courts and academies, the universities, too, reflected the progressive time. Halle, founded in 1694, and Göttingen, founded in 1737, became the new centres of an activity which had no sympathy with the doctrines of authority, either the theological ones of the church or the classicistic ones of the humanists. An independent free thought, working with mathematics and logic and empirical observation, was the demand of the time in every field. The jurist Thomasius (1655-1728) became the leader of the academic movement of protest against all narrowness and prejudice, fighting alike against the mediæval methods of legal and equivocal prosecution, against the superstitions of orthodox theology, and against the artificiality of classical learning. He was the first to emancipate German university instruction from

the traditional Latin and to publish a literary critical magazine in the German language. After conflicts with Leipzig he became one of the founders of Halle, and his spirit of modern intellectualistic enlightenment came to be characteristic of the place. To be sure, on theological grounds the opposition against orthodoxy did not move so much toward theoretical rationalism, but took at first the turn toward practical religiosity. The great pietistic anti-clerical movement which Spener (1635-1705) started, influenced by English puritanism, was continued in Halle by Francke (1663-1727), to whom true Christianity was not an object of science but a living duty; and yet even the insistence on the Bible as the only true source of religion meant here, as two centuries before in Luther, in first line not a binding of the free intellect, but a liberalizing and modernizing opposition against the orthodox spirit of the past. The full development of theological criticism in Halle belongs rather to the influence of Semler (172591), whose historical interpretations of the Bible open the way for the new rationalistic theology.

The most influential separation from church authority, however, on all fields of human thought came through Halle's fertile philosopher, Christian Wolff (1679-1754). His system was no great original construction - it was essentially Leibnitzian philosophy — but it gained its new strength and power by being really a system. Dogmatic rationalism herein reached its most self-conscious expression and Wolff's didactic treatment of ontology, cosmology, psychology, theology, ethics, economics, and politics soon penetrated the whole Protestant scholarship of Germany. Theology and metaphysics, morality and jurisprudence had to become "natural" and "rational"; the ideals of mathematical knowledge and social happiness determined the whole period. The Leibnitz-Wolffian movement was not without opponents like Crusius and Rüdiger, and yet the adherents carried the day. Among Wolff's pupils, besides interesting philosophers like Bilfinger and Lambert, Baumgarten (1714-62) must be mentioned as the founder of German "esthetics," a name which he invented. The scholarly rationalistic philosophy yielded quickly to its natural tendency to subserve the practical purposes of human virtue and happiness, to be reached by the emancipation of the individual from every authority but its own reason, and with this practical aim came the tendency to popularization. It was a movement to which Frederick the Great lent himself from the Prussian throne, and authors like Moses Mendelssohn and Reimarus, Nicolai and Engel, Tetens and Moritz spread it throughout Germany. Here also is the place for the important scholarly writings of the poet Lessing (1729-81), who stimulated theoretical æsthetics as well as philosophy of religion and philosophy of history.

While thus the new philosophical and theological spirit of the 18th century radiated from Halle, it was the University of Göttingen in which the new scientific and philological impulses started, till finally the light came from Königsberg. In Göttingen taught (next to Linnæus most eminent biologist of the time) Albrecht von Haller (1708-77), famous for his botanical books, but still more influential by his medical studies. He introduced the physio

logical experiment, and his demonstrations of what he called sensibility and irritability of nerves and muscles, became the starting point for biological theories which controlled the medical discussions of Europe down to the time of cellular pathology. Among those who took part in these physiological, pathological, and therapeutical controversies of the 18th century Frank, Weikard, Röschlaub, Pfaff, and others belong to Germany; and especially the group of those who defended that branch of Haller's system which had found its development in France under the name of vitalism: Blumenbach, Reil, and Hufeland. Blumenbach (17521840), who interprets the organic world by his "nisus formativus," became the founder of anthropology; the doctrine of the five human races is his. He was also the first to lecture on comparative anatomy. Reil considers life as a galvanic process, and with Hufeland the doctrine of animalism becomes practical medicine. Side branches of this vitalistic movement are mesmerism and homœopathy, whose founders, Mesmer (1734-1815), and Hahnemann (1755– 1843), are German physicians.

While biological studies flourished in Göttingen through Haller and Blumenbach, mathematical and physical, historical, juristic, and philological scholarship also found there the most brilliant representation. Lichtenberg (1744-99) had there his model laboratory for physics and his theories of electricity became victorious. Tobias Mayer (1723-62) worked out there his famous catalogue of zodiacal stars and Kaestner (1719-1800) attracted the mathematicians. All three stand as foremost representatives of the inorganic sciences of the time; yet Euler (1707-83), whom Frederick the Great called to Berlin, was perhaps more original in his numerous works dealing with mechanics and dioptrics, integral calculus and astronomy. Chemistry which began to demolish the old phlogiston theory was largely enriched by the comprehensive analyses of Scheele (1742-86), by Klaproth and others, and Richter (17621807) became the founder of chemical stoechiometry.

The classical philology of the 18th century also took, in Germany, a new turn. It was the time of the great literary movement in which every mind was directed toward the beauty of art. The new aim for the student of antiquity was to join the interest in classical fine arts with the interest in the writings and to approach the literature of antiquity with the attitude of æsthetic appreciation. Gesner (1691–1761) had revived the Greek studies throughout Germany; his Göttingen successor, Heyne (1729-1812), who edited Virgil, Homer, and Pindar, and explained Greek mythology, did much to give classical studies the æsthetic interest. The whole revival was known as the neo-humanistic movement. The greatest exponent was Heyne's pupil, F. A. Wolf (1759-1817), whose Prolegomena in Homerum' were epoch-making. With Wolf, the one-sided æsthetic attitude goes over into an enthusiastic interest for the whole of Greek life, its religion and art, its politics and history. The study of antiquity became for him a system of 24 different disciplines.

3. While thus the spirit of enlightenment in philosophy and natural sciences, in jurisprudence and theology, and the æsthetic spirit in literature, history and philology gave interest and

value to the intellectual life of Germany, the greatest emanation of the German genius had prepared itself. In the year 1781 appeared the first of the three great critiques of Immanuel Kant (1724-1804). Kant's critique of pure reason, critique of practical reason and critique of judgment, represent the most essential progress of human thought since Plato and Aristotle. The preceding rationalism which sought knowledge of metaphysical reality through reason, and the preceding empiricism which sought knowledge from the impressions on the senses, were equally superseded by Kant's "criticism," which proves that knowledge does not mean a reproduction of an independent reality, but a reconstruction of objective data by the subjective categories of perception and understanding. Knowledge is thus not concerned with a metaphysical reality; but we belong to the world of reality as free subjects of will who are determined not by the causalty of phenomena, but by duties. This gigantic reorganization of human knowledge and morality inspired the leaders of German culture; in Schiller it came into live contact with the great literary movement of Germany.

In the philosophical discussion of Kantian philosophy Jacobi, Beck, Maimon, Reinhold, Fries, represent most different attitudes, yet none of them suggests real progress. But Kant's system demanded further development; the subjective factor of his system was not really connected with the objective factor. The genius of Fichte (1762-1814) created a system whose ethical idealism made the object itself dependent upon the will-act of the subject, while Herbart (1776-1841) moved in the opposite direction, developing out of Kant's objective factor a realistic system which gave impulses to modern psychology. Directly from Kant, too, is derived Schopenhauer's (1788-1860) voluntaristic system of pessimism, which combines Kant's doctrine of the categories with Platonism and Buddhism. Schleiermacher (1768-1834) finally seeks to harmonize the ideal and the real factor in the interest of ethics and religion. It was Fichte's system which showed the direction for the further movement. The life of nature had been neglected in Kant and Fichte; as soon as it becomes a factor in philosophic thought, ethical idealism turns into the objective idealism of Schelling (1775-1854), and ultimately into the absolute idealism of Hegel (1770-1831), which understands nature and mind as the logically necessary expression of the Absolute. At every stage idealism exercised influence on the intellectual life of the time. From Fichte started the ethical regeneration of Prussia, expressed in the foundation of the University of Berlin (1810), and the romantic movement of Schlegel and Novalis. Schelling, on the other hand, influenced most deeply the naturalists, men like Oken, Oersted, Carus, Ness von Esenbeck, and many others who brought natural science itself under the categories of Schelling's system of identity, but philosophers like Krause and Solger also followed him. The strongest philosophical influence, however, resulted from the Hegelian system which, at about 1830, entirely controlled the academic philosophy of Prussia. But the triumph of Hegelianism meant an overtension of purely speculative thought, the maximum distance of theoretical and metaphysical construction from

the facts of observation. This neglect of experience demanded a necessary reaction against speculation; the breakdown of metaphysical onesidedness was disastrous. In the fourth decade of the 19th century the defeat of philosophy seemed complete and it meant the triumph of natural science as against metaphysics, of analysis as against synthesis, of realism and materialism as against idealism, of technique as against art, of specialization as against generalization. This naturalistic reaction filled the larger part of the 19th century in all civilized countries and brought to them the manifold discoveries and inventions which seem most characteristic of the time. Only at the end of the 19th century does the pendulum seem to begin again its backward swing with a new awakening of the idealistic spirit and deeper philosophical interests as reaction against the philosophical superficiality and incoherency of mere specialistic science.

4. In every new phase of this 19th century movement German scholars have taken the leadership. The deep philosophical longing of the German soul had created the unique movement which led from Kant to Hegel, but when the opposite tendency of the newer time demanded the patient work of the specialist, it was the world-known German thoroughness which won the laurels for the German laboratory experiment and naturalistic research and historical investigation.

Of course this specializing work had not waited for the downfall of philosophy; it took its rise in the work which we traced through the period of enlightenment in the 18th century. And further, the emphasis on specialization does not mean that the scientific life of Germany lacks in the 19th century great central figures, scholars with broad synthetic energy: the geographer Alexander von Humboldt, the physicist Helmholtz, the pathologist Virchow, the historians Ranke and Mommsen, are certainly not specialists in the narrow sense of the word. A short survey of the different fields indicates the abundance of brilliant thinkers who were grouped about such leaders.

We

may begin with mathematics and the inorganic natural sciences, then turn to the organic sciences and medicine, then to the historical and philological, economical and juristic fields, finally to the theological and philosophical.

For mathematics the first place belongs to Gauss (1777-1855) and after him the chief advance came through Jacobi, Dirichlet, Riemann, Kronecker, Weierstrass and others; yet the mathematical achievements were always blending with the works of physicists and astronomers as not a small part of the mathematical progress belongs to naturalists like Kirchoff, Helmholtz, Enck, Clausius, etc.

Gauss gave the strongest theoretical impulse also to astronomy, while Bessel (1784-1846) may be considered the founder of the practical astronomy of the century. Most influential for the theory were Hansen and Encke and their followers, Bruhns, Argelander, Argelander, Brünnow, Auwers, etc. Here belongs also as a special triumph of German thought, the discovery of spectral analysis by Kirchoff and Bunsen, applied by Zöllner and others.

Ip physics the turning point of the century lies at its middle when Helmholtz (1821-94) and independently R. Mayer (1841-78) formu

lated the law of the conservation of energy. In the first half of the century the best work in physics was done outside of Germany; among the Germans Ohm excelled (1787-1854) with his fundamental theories of galvanism; the brothers Weber, Poggendorff, Lenz, belong to the same period. The influence of Helmholtz is felt not only in the theory of energy, but in the whole field of mechanics, optics, and acoustics, besides physiology and psychology. The next and last climax is reached by Hertz through his study of the propagation of electric waves. Important too are the thermodynamics of Clausius, the electrolytic work of Hittorf, and most recently the discoveries of Röntgen concerning cathode rays.

In chemistry the decisive step was the foundation of a chemical university laboratory in Giessen by Justus Liebig (1803-73), the greatest chemist of his time, who revolutionized organic chemistry and whose researches became invaluable for agriculture, pharmacy, the preparation of food, etc. Out of his school came influential chemists of all nationalities; in Germany itself_especially, Kekule, Hofmann, Fehling, Kopp, Bayer, V. Meyer. Other centres of chemical ideas were the laboratories of Wöhler in Göttingen, of Bunsen in Heidelberg, of Mitscherlich and Rose in Berlin. The theory of atomistic combination was furthered by the antagonists Kekule and Kolbe, stereochemistry by Wislicenus and von Meyer, inorganic analysis by Wöhler, Winkler, Kirchoff, Bunsen, whose epoch-making spectral analysis has been mentioned before. The first organic synthesis is the famous work of Wöhler in 1829. opened in long series of synthetic successes of which not a few became technically important, as those of Fettig, Gräbe, Hofmann, Fischer. Practical gain also to pharmacy came directly from German chemistry; chlorohydrate and chloroform, salicyl and antipyrin, etc., are products of German laboratories. The incomparable position of German chemical industry is the immediate outcome of the wonderful development of chemical science in German universities and technological institutes.

It

The independent growth of physical chemistry prepared by Kopp, Bunsen, Wiedemann, became most significant in recent times through Ostwald, Van't Hoff, Nernst, etc. Mineralogy and crystallography connects its development in Germany in first line with the name of C. S. Weiss in Berlin, Neumann_in_Königsberg, Hessel in Marburg, Rose in Berlin, von Rath in Bonn, Zirkel in Leipzig, etc.

Geology became a science in Germany through A. G. Werner, in Freiberg, at the beginning of the century, and L. v. Buch developed the doctrine of the slow upheaval of continents; his geological map of Germany appeared in 1824. But greater was their pupil, Alexander von Humboldt (1769-1859), the most comprehensive German naturalist of his time. His studies in South and Central America and in Asia, his incomparable richness of observation in all fields of descriptive science, his unifying apperception of nature, as expressed in his Kosmos, make him the most imposing and most sympathetic figure in the German science of the first half of the last century.

Inasmuch as Humboldt's geography was essentially physical, it seemed opposed to the historical-geographical interest. A synthesis of