curring much more frequently within the deep valleys leading down from mountain heights, than in broader valleys or level regions. In the former, during calm cold nights, the cold air of the hill and mountain tops, by virtue of its greater specific gravity, flows down and mixes with, or flows underneath and replaces, the warmer, lighter air of the valleys, thus furnishing the conditions favorable to frost formation, The cooling of objects by radiation of heat, and by the evaporation of moisture from them, greatly facilitates the formation of frost. Frost crystallizations exhibit a wonderful variety, both of form and structure. The formation of each of the various types seems to depend upon a great number of meteorological and other conditions, some of them obscure. The temperature of the air, its electric condition, humidity, etc., and also the nature of the substances upon which they form, each seem to exert an influence in determining_and modifying their form and structure. Two principal types of hoar frost occur, the columnar and the tabular. Commonly, both varieties do not occur simultaneously, but on a given night one or the other type will greatly predominate and form the bulk of the crystals. Frost crystallizations in general greatly resemble those of snow, but because their development is usually restricted in one or more directions by the objects or surfaces upon which they form, the resemblance is segmentary, rather than complete. In general, columnar forms vary from similar snow crystallizations, by virtue of their hollow cylindrical, or cup-like character, and by often attaining to much greater dimensions. Sometimes, during extreme cold, such forms attain a length of many inches. Tabular forms rarely attain perfect symmetry, but exhibit within them air tubes and inclusions, assume crystal forms possessing both close and open structure, and develop upon the same extremely thin plane as do similar snow crystals. As commonly deposited in spring or autumn, they do not usually greatly exceed in size similar snow forms, but during intense and prolonged cold, as in winter, they attain much greater dimensions. A very beautiful effect is sometimes produced by the deposition upon the trees, shrubs, etc., of a heavy coat of hoar frost. Each limb and leaf and delicate twig is transformed and beautified, and presents a white appearance, as though frosted with silver. During zero weather, large and delicately formed branching tabular crystals, and long, icy needles, form in beautiful pendent clusters upon, and depend from, the rafters and timbers of barns, etc., close to where domestic animals are kept; and also upon ferns and similar plants overhanging icy terraces or ice-covered pools. Similar forms also form directly upon or project from icy surfaces. Even the clouds furnish their quota of frost crystallizations. When low-lying clouds enshroud mountain tops covered by forests, they often deposit a portion of their moisture upon the branches of the trees, commonly in the form of long, granular or fibrous needle-shaped crystals. Fogs, when they occur during hoar frost formation, usually deposit moisture upon the forming crystals in granular form. The most beautiful and varied frost crystallizations are those that form upon the window panes of dwelling houses, etc., in arctic or temperate zones. These fairy-like creations, seemingly in imitation of leaves, feathers, ferns, trees, starry

firmaments, tropical forest effects, etc., occur as three distinct entities: the granular, the crystalline, and the membraneous. The latter variety forms only in heated rooms, upon window panes covered with an uncongealed film of water, as a dew-like condensation of moisture. It occurs most frequently in the form of long, curving, feather-like forms, or as an exceedingly delicate membranaceous-like network of diverging and coalescing lines. It is due to a process of crystallization that takes place during the conversion of a film of water into ice. The crystalline variety of window frost forms only upon window panes that are free from water in liquid form. Crystals of this class assume branching, star-like forms (often as four- or six-pointed branching stars), curving filaments, fibrous crystallizations, and those resembling sea-moss, long serrated lines, etc. Many of these are very beautiful and interesting. Some of them develop within minute striations in the surface of the glass and will reappear in the same identical positions upon a given pane, with each renewal. When identical meteorological and other conditions recur again and again, the types of frost coexistent with each will, in general, recur simultaneously with them. During zero weather, if conditions are favorable, the formation and growth of these beautiful frost creations takes place very rapidly. A beautiful and absorbingly interesting experiment consists in melting a heavy coat of window frost off a portion of a window pane (by placing an oil lamp close to it). Only the central portion of the pane should be cleared of all moisture; around this a film of water should be left upon the glass. Soon after the lamp is removed the feather-like membraneous frost will form around the outer edges of the film of water, and quickly radiate in beautiful curves toward the centre of the pane. They stop instantly when they reach the clear glass. Soon minute and delicate serrated crystal lines, or tiny crystal stars, appear upon the clear glass space, and slowly develop, and usually coexistent with them a thin film of granular texture will be laid down upon portions of the clear glass. The latter is not usually deposited in slow progressive order, but in intermittent order. Large spaces of the clear glass are often covered simultaneously, by a succession of auroral-like flashes; each flash, in the twinkling of an eye, spreading a thin granular film upon unoccupied portions of the glass. Singularly enough, the granular deposit does not form near where the true crystalline frost is; the latter repels the former and prevents its formation upon the spaces immediately surrounding it.

The phenomena included under the title frost, as commonly accepted, are understood to include both the processes of freezing and the mechanical effects produced thereby. Considered under this broad definition, frost plays an important part in the economy of nature, both beneficent and otherwise. It enters the crevices and minute cracks in the rocks and rends the rocks apart; and is thus an important agent in aiding and hastening their disintegration, and in converting them and the solid materials of the earth into soil. Its beneficent action in loosening and pulverizing the soil, by entering it and forcing the particles of compacted soil and clods apart through its expansive action upon the particles of moisture dis

seminated therein, is well known, and is of inestimable value to agriculture and to humanity. The damage sometimes done to vegetation, trees, etc., through the frosts entering them, and rending their fibres, cells, etc., apart, is often very great, and partial failures of crops such as corn, vegetables, fruits, etc., are due to this cause. As any considerable motion of air, the presence of clouds covering the sky, or the placing of a light covering, as of cloth or similar material, over the objects to be protected, greatly reduces or prevents the formation of frost upon them and of injury thereby, artificial preventives are often resorted to. Sometimes smoke-producing fires are built around or within enclosures or fields containing plants, fruits, or vegetables, and light, tent-like coverings are placed over small fruit trees, shrubs, etc., and other tender vegetable or plant growths, and thus the damage by frosts is prevented, or minimized. In France an instrument has been devised for the prediction of frost. It consists of a wet bulb and dry bulb thermometer, mounted on a board on which is also a scale of lines corresponding to the degrees of the dry bulb, and a pointer traversing a scale graduated according to degrees of the wet bulb. Observations are taken shortly before sunset. By means of the pointer and scale, the point may be found at which the line of the dry bulb reading meets the pointer set to the reading of the wet bulb. The scale is colored so that the point may fall in one of three zones, indicating certain .frost, probable frost or no probability of frost. See also SNOW.

Air Drainage is a term generally applied to a type of air circulation which plays an important part in the distribution of frosts, more particularly in hill and valley districts. The cold heavy air of the higher slopes flows down and fills the valley, forcing upwards the warm and lighter air of the latter, and forming in the valley a lake of cold air. Thus there are heavy frost in the valleys while the higher slopes escape. The condition is understood by gardeners and others who use upper slopes for their gardens, orchards, etc.

Bibliography.-Andrews, Famous Frosts and Frost-Fairs in Great Britain' (London 1887); Beals, Forecasting Frost in the North Pacific States' (Weather Bulletin 41, Washington 1912); Cox, Frost and Temperature Conditions in the Cranberry Marshes of Wisconsin' (ib. 1910); Day, Frost Data of the United States and Length of the Crop-Growing Season' (ib. 1911); Garriott, E. B., 'Cold Waves and Frost in the United States' (Weather Bulletin P, Washington 1906); Canada's Fertile Northland (Department of the Interior, Ottawa 1907); Hann, Zum Klima Manitoba' in Meteorologische Zeitschrift (Vienna 1894). and Monthly Weather Review.

FROST-BIRD, or FROST-SNIPE, a stilt sandpiper (q.v.).

FROST-BITE, form of mortification due to the action of cold in withdrawing the supply of blood from ears, fingers, nose, toes, cheeks, etc. In its milder forms it is known as "chaps" or "chilblains." In frostbite the affected parts are always in danger of gangrene. The remedy is an immediate application of snow or a spray of ice-water to restore the circulation; this cold application is effective in all cases where the mortification is slight and not of long dura

tion, but if it has gone too far the circulation cannot be restored, the part is lost and surgical treatment of the latter is necessary to prevent a spread of gangrene. See CHILBLAIN; COLD. FROST-FISH, a name given to various fishes, because they appear at the time of early frost, as does the tomcod (q.v.) so called in New England. The frost-fish of New Zealand is one of the scabbard-fishes (q.v.).

FROSTBURG, Md., town in Allegany County, 80 miles southeast of Pittsburgh; on the Pennsylvania, the Western Maryland and the Cumberland railroads. Its situation is picturesque at an elevation of 2,200 feet above sea-level, and it has a reputation as a summer resort. A State normal school and a miners'

hospital are located here. Coal mining is the chief industry, but there are also fire-brick and tile works, planing-mills, foundries and hosiery mills. It is governed by a mayor, elected for one year, and a council elected at large. The waterworks are the property of the municipality. Pop. 6,028.

FROTH-FLY, or FROTH-HOPPER. See FROGHOPPER.

Lincoln,

FROTHINGHAM, Arthur American archæologist; b. Boston, Mass., 21 June 1859. He was educated in Rome, Italy, and at Leipzig; lectured on archæology at Johns Hopkins University in 1882-86; and became professor of archæology and the history of art at Princeton University in 1887, and in 1898-1906 was professor of archæology and ancient history. He founded the American Journal of Archæology in 1885; and was associate director of the American School of Classical Studies, Rome, in 1895-96. He is a member of many learned societies. His publications include 'Ă History of Sculpture'; Mediæval Art Inventories of the Vatican'; 'Stephen Bar Sudaili, the Syrian Mystic and the Book of Hierotheos' (1886); with Marquand, A., A Textbook of the History of Sculpture (1896); 'Monuments of Christian Rome (1908); Roman Cities in Italy and Dalmatia) (1910); 'A History of Architecture (1911), and various monographs on Syria.

FROTHINGHAM, Nathaniel Langdon, American Unitarian clergyman and religious writer: b. Boston, Mass., 23 July 1793; d. there, 4 April 1870. He was graduated from Harvard in 1812 and entering the ministry was pastor of the First Church in Boston 1815-50. He was author of 'Deism or Christianity'; (Sermons in the Order of a Twelvemonth' (1852); and Metrical Pieces) (1855-70). He was one of the earliest American students of German. His writings are marked by grace and refinement.

FROTHINGHAM, Octavius Brooks, American clergyman: b. Boston, Mass., 26 Nov. 1822; d. there, 27 Nov. 1895. He was a son of N. L. Frothingham (q.v.), and was graduated from Harvard in 1843, and from the Cambridge Divinity School in 1846. His radical views led to the resignation of his pastorate in the North Unitarian Church, Salem, Mass. He was pastor in Jersey City 1855-59; he then organized the Third Unitarian Church in New York, where he preached very radical and advanced views till his resignation in 1879. The remainder of his life was devoted to travel and literary pur

suits, his home being in Boston. His works were Stories from the Lips of the Teacher'; 'Stories from the Old Testament'; 'The Religion of Humanity'; 'The Cradle of the Christ'; Memoir of W. H. Channing); The Safest Creed'; 'Beliefs of the Unbelievers'; 'Creed and Conduct'; 'The Spirit of the New Faith'; 'The Rising and the Setting Faith'; 'Lives of Gerrit Smith, George Ripley, Theodore Parker'; 'Transcendentalism in New England'; 'Recollections and Impressions'; etc.

FROTHINGHAM, Richard, American journalist and historian: b. Charlestown, Mass., 31 Jan. 1812; d. 1880. He was at various times a member of the State legislature, was mayor of Charlestown 1851-53, and managing editor of the Boston Post 1852-65. He published 'History of Charlestown' (1848); History of the Siege of Boston' (1849); Life and Times of Gen. Joseph Warren (1865); The Rise of the Republic of the United States' (1871).

FROUDE, frood, James Anthony, English historian: b. Dartington, Devonshire, England, 23 April 1818; d. Salcombe, Devonshire, 20 Oct. 1894. He was the youngest son of Archdeacon R. H. Froude, rector of Dartington, and was educated at Westminster and Oxford. His brother, Hurrell Froude, was one of the leaders in the "Oxford Movement" and both were influenced by Newman, the earliest work of the younger Froude being a contribution to the Lives of the Saints, edited by Newman. He soon emerged from Tractarian influence, however, and for the rest of his life remained indifferent to the Church in which he had been reared. The first two volumes of his history of England appeared in 1856 and at once attracted marked attention, both favorable and adverse, on account of the brilliant style and the audacity of the writer's opinions. The book flatly reversed many historical judgments, and interpreted motives in a manner more common now than then, but very startling to readers in the middle of the 19th century. His attempted vindication of Henry VIII must be accounted a failure, brilliant and able as it is, and although it is a most striking portrait of Henry that he has painted, it cannot be called a faithful likeness. His treatment of Mary of Scotland is frankly hostile, and has been met with severe criticism. His judgment of Elizabeth, though far from impartial, is more nearly accurate than that of either of the other two personages. He excelled in vigorous, dramatic presentation of men and events, and in the judgment of sober critics appears to have cared much more for picturesque narrative than for absolute historical accuracy. As a historian, he will long continue to be read and admired, but his apparent indifference to historical truth at times will not permit of his inclusion in the first rank of historians. He visited the United States in 1872 on a lecture tour, his lectures being afterward published with the title of English Misrule in Ireland.' In 1874 he visited South Africa, his impressions being later given to the world in lectures at Edinburgh, and in 1882 made an extended tour through Australia, the West Indies and the United States, the literary outcome of which were 'Oceana' and "The English in the West Indies.' He was the friend of Carlyle, whose literary executor

he became, and his life of the Sage of Chelsea, his 'Reminiscences of Carlyle' and 'Letters and Memorials of Jane Carlyle have excited a vast amount of controversy. In 1892 Froude succeeded the historian Freeman as regius professor of history at Oxford, his lectures in that capacity afterward constituting his volume on Erasmus. It may be said that Froude was more distinctly a man of letters than a historian. He is always readable even when one is forced to dissent from him most strongly, but he touched on too many themes to give to the writing of history the devotion toward it so characteristic of such men as the late Samuel Rawson Gardner, Professor Freeman or John Richard Green, and he was temperamentally indifferent to the claims of entire truthfulness. He may not have consciously distorted facts, but his selection of certain details and suppression of others for the apparent sake of making the particular hero in question brighter, or the particular villain darker, does not commend itself to the lover of truth for its own sake. His important works include 'Shadows of the Clouds, published under the pseudonym "Zeta" (1847); 'The Nemesis of Faith' (1849); The Book of Job' (1851); The History of England from the Fall of Wolsey to the Death of Elizabeth (1856-70); 'Short Studies on Great Subjects) (1867); Inaugural Address Delivered to the University of St. Andrews' (1869); The Cat's Pilgrimage) (1870); (Short Studies: Second Series' (1871); Calvinism (1871); The English in Ireland in the 18th Century (1872-74); Short Studies: Third Series (1877); Life and Times of Thomas Becket (1878); Cæsar: a Sketch' (1879); 'Bunyan (1880) 'Two Lectures on South Africa (1880); Reminiscences of the High Church Revival' (1881); Short Studies: Fourth Series> (1882); 'Reminiscences of Thomas Carlyle (edited 1881); Thomas Carlyle: History of the First Forty Years of His Life (1882); 'Letters and Memorials of Jane Welsh Carlyle' (edited 1883); Thomas Carlyle; History of His Life in London 1831-81) (1884); Life of Lord Beaconsfield (1890); The Divorce of Catharine of Aragon' (1891); 'Life and Letters of Erasmus' (1894). The first two volumes named above he attempted to suppress in later life, and succeeded with The Shadow of the Clouds.' Consult Life,' by Herbert Paul (1905).

FROUFROU, comedy in five acts, produced at the Gymnase in 1869 and the greatest work of Meilhac and Halévy.

FROZEN STRAIT, the passage which connects Repulse Bay and Fox Channel, and separates Melville Peninsula and Southampton Islands. It is from 10 to 20 miles wide and in lat. 65° N. This strait is frozen, as its name indicates, nearly all the year, although some bodies of water farther north are free from ice from two to five months each year.

FROZEN WELLS, wells occurring in which ice is found throughout the year. In most wells of this kind the temperature is seldom above 32° F. The low temperature is due to the entrance of cold air into the interior of the earth in cold winter months. Kimball studied conditions in some abandoned iron mines at Westport, N. Y., and thus obtained a clue to the method of ice formation in wells and