on the capture of the city by the Gauls retreated.' Here the taking and retreating are performed by different agents, the taking by the Gauls, the retreating by the Romans.

35 Necato.

Though this ablative commonly denotes the time or cause, it may, like any other ablative, denote any accompanying circumstance. Here it denotes the means: by the murder of his son he opened.' 36 Succurrentibus. The accompanying circumstance denoted by this ablative may be either a reason for, or a reason against, the action denoted by the verb. Thus this may mean either with the help of a few; that is, 'since a few help us :' or, notwithstanding the the help of a few;' that is, though only a few help us.' So the conjunction quum with the subjunctive may mean either 'since' or "though.'

37 Rege. We have seen (vI. Rem. d). that the copula may often be omitted, mere juxtaposition being sufficient. Here it cannot be inserted, as it has no participle (as sens).

38 Volvenda. We now come to the Imperfect Passive Participle, of which the following must be noted.

1. The Imperfect Passive Participle is only used in the participlenoun construction. Urbs condita may mean either 'the city when built,' or 'the building of the city:' urbs condenda means only 'the building of the city' (Note 19).

2. It is only used in the nominative in a special sense implying necessity or duty. We cannot say, Urbs condenda nos fatigavit, 'the building of the city wearied us :' as we can say Rex interfectus nos terruit, 'the murder of the king frightened us.' It can only be subject-word to the copula.

3. The Imperfect Passive Participle shows, as its name implies, that the action named by the Participle-noun is thought of as not finished. Urbs condita means the 'building of the city when finished': urbs condenda means 'the building of the city when not finished.'

The expression in the text, volvenda dies, 'the roll of time,' may seem a breach of Rule 2: for it is in the nominative before commutat and attulit. But it must be clearly understood that, though found in poetry, it is not allowable in Latin Prose. It is quoted, because logically, and by comparison with other participles, it is a correct expression; but it is not sanctioned by usage.

39 Condenda. Here we have one of the commonest uses of the Imperfect Passive Participle. The building of the city is by you.' But this Participle-noun names an unfinished, not a finished, action; and the only sense in saying that a man has by his side an unfinished action, is to imply that he is bound, or ought, to do it. Hence the sentence may be translated 'the city ought to be, or should be, or is to be, or has to be, or must be, built by you:' or, actively, 'you ought to, have to, should, or must, build the city.' 40 Tibi. If we compare this sentence with the last we see the Imperfect Participle is accompanied by the Dative, the Perfect by the Ablative case. Rex-interfectus the death of the king' (an accomplished fact) is, or proceeds, from you. Rex-interficiendus 'the death of the king' (an action not accomplished) cannot come from you till it is done; but rests with you, is at your side, for you to do.

41 Erant. As Omnia tibi sunt agenda means 'the doing of every

thing is with you,' or 'you have to do every thing:' so Omnia tibi erant agenda means the doing of everything was with you,' or 'you had to do everything.' So with erunt the sentence will mean, 'you will have to do everything.'

42 Diligentia. Observe that this ablative names the means, not the agent.

43 Delendam. Here we have the same participle-noun in the accusative: I think that the destruction of Carthage (not finished) rests with us,' 'that we ought to destroy Carthage.' So in line 174, 'I think that a different arrangement of the affair lay with you,' 'that you ought to have arranged it differently.'

41 Claudendam. If we compare this use of the Imperfect passive Participle with that of the Gerund (xvIII. note 7 and 21) we see that they are exactly the same-only that the Passive Participle is used when the verb is transitive, the Gerund when the verb is intransitive. Hence the Rule

In Intransitive verbs the Gerund, and in Transitive verbs the Imperfect Passive Participle joined to a noun, are used in a special sense in the nominative and accusative to name actions that must or should be performed: and the agent that must or should perform them has his noun in the Dative case.

There seems no reason why the gerund should not have been used with transitive as well as intransitive verbs; why we should not say, claudendum portam est tibi, 'the shutting of the gate rests with you,' you must shut the gate;' as well as, pugnandum est tibi, fighting rests with you,' you must fight.' Accordingly we did find that such a construction was possible (see XVIII. 157, and notes): but it was not sanctioned by usage, and it must never be adopted in practice. In fact it was not wanted, when once the participle-noun construction was introduced: for this, both with perfect and imperfect participles, became a general favourite, and was almost always used when it could be. 45 Capiendi. We now come to the other cases of this participle-noun, and in these of course there is no special sense of necessity or duty, just as there is none in the other cases of the gerund. The special sensé, indeed is due to the copula and the dative, rather than to the participle or gerund. Capiendi-Romuli therefore, taken together, means of the capture of Romulus,' and is exactly like capti Remi in the previous line. Only the tense of capti shows that Remus was taken, his capture was accomplished; while the tense of capiendi shows that Romulus was not taken-his capture was not accomplished: we are angry at a thing that is done; we hope for a thing that is not done. 46 Conditam. The perfect (or aorist) participle conditam makes us think of the building as one single momentary action: so that we can think of a time before the building and a time after it. But the imperfect condendam makes us think of the building as going on; so that we can think of three times, one before the building commenced, one while it was going on, and one when it was finished.

47 Accipiendis. Here perhaps the difference between the tenses is not so clearly marked, but still it may be seen. Victis in the next line denotes a completed act-the Veientines were defeated: while accipiendis denotes a continued act-the enemy from time to time were admitted into the State.

48 Ducendam. This is a noticeable use of the same participle-noun construction, ducendam-legionem being in the accusative after dedit. 'Cæsar assigned to Fabius the leading of a single legion.' So, in line 215, 'Cæsar attended to the building of a bridge;' that is, had a bridge built.' And in line 217, 'thou lettest out the hewing of marble:' the owner locat 'lets out' the hewing; that is, contracts for its being done. The contractor conducit 'hires,' or redimit purchases,' the hewing; that is, contracts to do it. 49 Dormire. From what has been said it is clear that the Imperfect Passive Participle joined to a noun is a verbal noun; that is, it names the action denoted by the verb. But only of course if the verb be transitive. If it be intransitive, the Gerund is the verbal. The Gerund may indeed be used, if the verb be transitive; but it is not much liked, and is only admissible in the genitive, and ablative without a preposition. In the following sentences we have again instances of all the uses of the verbal, first of an intransitive and then of a transitive verb.

50 Habendi. The Gerund of transitive verbs is allowable in the genitive; but the participle construction is preferred except in such a sentence as this, where the word in the accusative is an adjective that has not altogether passed into a noun, as plura. But if the adjective has altogether passed into a noun, then the participle is preferred; as, veri reperiendi 'of discovering the truth.' (xv. f.)

51 Liberandæ. From the instances given both in this chapter and ch. XVIII. we see that the verbal noun may be thus declined.

Verbal of an Intransitive verb.

N. Dormiendum (special sense), Dormire.

G. Dormiendi.

D. Dormiendo.

A. Dormiendum (special sense and with prep.), Dormire, Dor. mitum.

Ab. Dormiendo.

Of an Intransitive verb followed by a noun.

N. Ignoscendum (special sense), Ignoscere.
G. Ignoscendi.

A. Ignoscendum (special sense), Ignoscere.

Ab. Ignoscendo (not after preposition).

Of a Transitive verb.

N. Pax-petenda (special sense), Petere pacem.

G. Pacis-petendæ, Petendi pacem.

D. Paci-petendæ.

A. Pacem-petendam (special sense, and with prep.), Petere pacem, Petitum pacem.

Ab. Pace-petenda, Petendo pacem (not after preposition).

52 Petendam. This perhaps is one of the commonest uses of the participle-noun construction; namely, to denote the purpose for which an action is performed. The ambassadors were sent with a view to the begging for peace; that is, to beg for peace.

53 Obeundo. In the ablative alone without a preposition it seems immaterial whether the gerund or participle is used. With a preposition, we may not have a gerund followed by a noun.

54 Variantis. Here we have instances of participles used like ordinary adjectives, according to Rem. h.

55 Memorande. When the imperfect passive participle is thus used, it gives the idea of fitness or meetness; as, memorandus, meet, or worthy, to be mentioned,' amandus, 'meet to be loved,' 'loveable,' &c. In itself, the participle, as usual, only denotes unfinished action. But if I say that a man is always being spoken of, I imply that he deserves to be spoken of: when I say that he is loved without ceasing, I imply that he is loveable. And this meaning well agrees with the special sense of the nominative and accusative, which implies necessity or duty or fitness. 56 Absentium. Here we have participles passing into nouns, according to Rule K, like adjectives; see ch. xv. Perfect passive participles in the neuter gender are especially apt to do this. They commonly pass into regular neuter nouns and have adjectives agreeing with them, as turpe factum, præclarum responsum, &c.; see instances in xv. 49 k. But sometimes they are combined with adverbs; as male dictis, line 288.

XXI.

1 Transitive. In this Chapter we have examples of words, both verbs and adjectives, followed by different cases. And this might be expected to happen. For we can regard an action as operating in different ways, as will be seen in the following sentences. 2 Incident. In this and the following sentences the action may be regarded both as operating indirectly on, and towards the object. Hence the verb may be followed both by the dative case, and by the accusative with a preposition (A).

3 Imposuit. If the slave lays wood on the fire, I may think of him as operating indirectly on the fire; as moving the wood and laying it at, or on, the fire. Hence the dative igni. Or I may think of him as moving the wood directly towards the fire. Hence the accusative ignem, while the preposition in shows the position which the word occupies after the motion; not under, or outside, but in, or on the fire.

4 Dabo. Do originally meant' put.' When then I put my knee to the ground, I move it towards the ground. Hence the accusative terram; with the preposition ad, not in, because the knee remains outside the ground. But do, in its secondary and ordinary sense of giving', is always followed by the dative: though even in this sense we can conceive the action of giving as directed towards the object. Hence in the later popular Latin, the mother of the Romance languages, do came to be followed by the accusative with ad; and hence the à after verbs of giving in French.

5 Eripuit. In the following sentences we have verbs followed both by the ('from') ablative and the dative (B). If I take a thing from a person, I naturally think of the thing as moved from the person, and therefore I should put the noun naming the person in the ablative. But we can think of him as operated on indirectly by the taking away. The action of taking away operates round him; affecting, without moving him. Hence the noun may be in the dative. The ablative however, as might be expected, is the more

common construction, except with adimo, which never takes the ablative.

6 Conferte. Here we have the ('at') ablative and dative. If we compare two objects, we can either think of the two as down together before us (the ablative with cum); or we can think of one object put by the side of another (dative).

7 Alienum. Here we have adjectives followed by different cases. Alienus means 'foreign,' 'strange;' and we should naturally think of a strange object as turned away from us; hence the ablative, both with and without a preposition; and the genitive, according to its primary idea of 'from.' But we can also think of it as disinclined to us, and hence the dative, and accusative with a preposition. So too aversus may be followed by the dative, though it prefers the ablative, as is much more natural, for it means turned away from.' But in English the 'to' idea prevails over the 'from;' as we commonly say averse to a thing.

6

8 Præcedunt. Here we have verbs passing from intransitive to transitive (Rem. c). Præcedo means 'go before,' and therefore is naturally followed by the dative; for if I go before an object, I do not act on it directly, but indirectly; my going does not pass into it, but operates at or round it. Still by going in front of an object, I may be regarded as stopping it or overcoming it; and this suggests the idea of direct action. And generally the tendency of language is to become simpler and to disregard the difference between actions. If they operate on an object at all, they come to be conceived as operating in one way only. And this way is the direct way, as the simpler of the two. Hence intransitive verbs are apt to become transitive, and the accusative case supplants the dative. In fact in the later Latin all nice distinctions of language vanished, and all cases except the nominative merged in the accusative; so that they could say, sum in domum, 'I am in the house'.

Similarly, in English verbs have become transitive which used to be intransitive, as 'obey.' See Acts vii. 39; 'to whom our fathers would not obey.' Perhaps the expression 'I wired him' is one of the latest outcomes of this tendency.

9 Ascenderunt. These verbs also are both intransitive and transitive, but they differ from præcedo, &c., in being followed, as intransitive, not by the dative, but by the accusative with a preposition. 10 Incedimus. These are followed by all three constructions (C). 11 Ridetur. Most of the verbs which pass from intransitive into transitive pass through the passive voice as intransitive; that is, they are only used impersonally. But some pass through it as transitive, as rideor.

12 Fugerat. Here we have verbs which denote 'motion from' passing into transitive. Thus fugio 'flee' followed by the ablative becomes fugio 'shun' followed by the accusative. This change seems more unnatural than the former. For in the former the action went toward objects, and it was no great change from indirect to direct operation; from entering into' a city, for instance, to 'entering' a city. But here the action goes from objects; and it seems very unnatural to say, 'I fled him,' 'I departed him.'

13 Horrescit. Here we have verbs passing into transitive, which are naturally followed by the 'at' ablative. But many of these, as lætor, and gaudeo, are only followed by the accusative of pronouns.