c. The object to, and the object through, which motion is directed; and the object spoken of as operated on directly; have their nouns in the Accusative case.

d. The object spoken of as operated on indirectly has its noun in the Dative case. This case also retains traces of its original idea of 'operation at.'

e. The object from which motion is directed, and the object in, on, or at which an action is performed (all objects being included that can be spoken of as accompanying or surrounding the action), have their nouns in the Ablative case.

f. The object addressed has its noun in the Vocative case. 28 We may also sum up the verbs which we have as yet considered in the following Classes.

I. Intransitive Verbs like Ambulo 'walk:' that is, verbs which denote actions that do not operate on any object, and which therefore are not followed by any noun.

II. Intransitive Verbs like Cedo 'yield:' that is, verbs which denote actions that operate on one object indirectly, not moving it but operating round it, and which are therefore followed by one noun in the dative.

III. Transitive verbs like Porto 'carry:' that is, verbs which denote actions that operate on one object directly, and which are therefore followed by one noun in one accusative. IV. Transitive verbs, like Do 'give:' that is, verbs which denote actions that operate on two objects, on one directly, on the other indirectly; and which are therefore followed by two nouns, one in the accusative, the other in the dative.

It will be seen that, though verbs may conveniently be ranged in these Classes, there are some verbs which do not remain fixed in any class, but pass readily from one to an

other.

29 Before going on with other Parts of Speech, it may be well to mention here that every sentence is held to consist of two parts, the Subject-word and the Predicate. The Subject

word, as we have seen, names the subject; that is, the object about which the sentence is made; and is therefore a noun in the nominative case. The Predicate (predicatum from predico 'say') means that which is said or 'predicated' of the subject, and includes the rest of the sentence. Thus in the sentence, Gaius ambulat, 'Gaius walks,' Gaius is the subjectword, and ambulat is the predicate. So in Gaius portat librum, 'Gaius carries a book,' Gaius is the subject-word, and portat librum is the predicate. What is said or predicated of the subject named Gaius is, in the one sentence, that he walks; in the other, that he carries a book. This being understood, we are now ready for the next Part of Speech, namely the Adjective.

30 The Adjective, as we have seen, is a word which added to a noun, denotes that the object named by the noun possesses a certain quality, or is of a certain sort.

Now the Adjective may be used in two ways, either as an Epithet, or as a Complement.

An adjective is said to be an Epithet, when it is simply attached to a noun in a sentence which would be complete without it. Thus in the sentence, Bonus homo ambulat, 'the good man walks,' bonus 'good' is an epithet, homo ambulat making a complete sentence without it. So in the sentence, Bonus homo portat gravem librum, 'the good man carries a heavy book,' bonus and gravem are epithets, homo portat librum making a complete sentence without them. Thus it appears that an epithet may be applied either to the subject-word, or to a noun in the predicate. But an adjective is said to be a Complement, when it itself makes up (complet) the Predicate, so that the sentence is not complete without it. Thus in the sentence, Homo est mortalis, 'man is mortal,' homo is the Subject-word, and est mortalis is the Predicate. And the Predicate is composed of Copula and Complement: est being called the Copula, because it couples the complement to the subject-word; and mortalis being called the Complement, because it makes

up, or completes, the sentence, which would be incomplete without it.

31 The Adjective passes through numbers and cases like the noun: the numbers and cases of the adjective being simply Forms which the adjective passes through in order to suit the number and case of the noun to which it is attached.

32 The adjective also passes through genders, which the noun does not. An object indeed is held to be of a certain sex-male, female, or neither: and therefore the noun which names it is of a certain gender-masculine, feminine, or neuter. But it does not pass through genders. So far as gender is concerned, it remains the same throughout. The adjective on the other hand changes its form to shew gender. It is capable of passing through three forms, as bonus, bona, bonum, according as the noun to which it is attached is masculine, feminine, or neuter. The Genders therefore of an Adjective are— -Forms which the adjective passes through in order to suit the gender of the noun to which it is attached.

33 The adjective also passes through Degrees of Comparison,

which may be defined as-Forms which the adjective passes through in order to shew the degree in which the quality denoted by the adjective is possessed by one object as compared with other objects. The Degrees are called Positive, Comparative, Superlative: as, positive, durus 'hard;' comparative, durior 'harder;' superlative, durissimus 'hardest.'

34 The Adjective is subject to one simple Law, commonly called the Second Concord

An adjective agrees with the noun to which it is attached in gender, number, and case.

This law holds whether the adjective be epithet or complement.

35 There are various words commonly included under the head of Pronouns, which may more conveniently be treated as

adjectives. These are the Possessives, Demonstratives, &c. Now the test of an adjective is this. Can the word in question stand before a noun as 'good' does? If it can, it is an adjective. If it cannot, it is not an adjective. Now by this test the Possessives, Demonstratives, &c., are adjectives, and only the Personal Pronouns are nouns. You cannot say 'I man,' ego homo: therefore neither '1' nor ego is an adjective. You cannot say 'he man,' but you can say ille vir: therefore 'he' is not an adjective, but the demonstrative ille is an adjective. In Latin then the only three real Pronouns are the Personals ego and tu, and the Reflexive se: and these are simply nouns, serving the same purpose and being subject to the same rules as nouns.

36 The other words in question then will be treated as adjectives. But as they are in a measure connected with the pronouns, they may be called Pronominal Adjectives. They may be classed thus

1. Possessives: meus, tuus, suus, cujus, noster, vester. 2. Demonstratives,

a. Physical: hic, iste, ille.

b. Logical: is, with its compounds idem and ipse.

3. Qui and its compounds, Relative, Interrogative, and Indefinite.

These words are declined in the Primer (38), and will be explained as they occur in the sentences.

37 There remains now only to speak of those Parts of Speech which are said to be without Flexion, or Indeclinable: that is, which do not pass through changes of form to exhibit changes of meaning, as the Noun, Verb, and Adjective do. Of these, the Adverb is a word which is commonly attached, as its name implies, to a verb; but which is often attached to an adjective, and may even be attached to another adverb. Its use is to qualify in some way or other the action or quality denoted by the verb or adjective to which it is attached Thus if I say "The girl sings merrily,' the adverb 'merrily' qualifies, or gives a quality to, the action of singing. If

I say, 'The man is strikingly handsome,' the adverb 'strikingly' qualifies, or gives a quality to, the quality denoted by the adjective 'handsome.' For the classes into which Adverbs are divided, see Primer, 82.

Though Adverbs are said to be without flexion, they do pass through Degrees of Comparison: as, pulchre 'finely,' pulchrius 'more finely,' pulcherrime 'most finely?'

38 The Conjunction is a word used to link together words or sentences. Perhaps however it will be better not to consider it as a distinct Part of Speech. For the word which does most to link on one sentence to another is the relative adjective qui with the adverbs connected with it. Qui therefore may be regarded as a Conjunction-Adjective; and the adverbs connected with it, as ut, quo, qua, ubi, unde, &c., may be regarded as Conjunction-Adverbs. And all other so-called Conjunctions may be regarded as ConjunctionAdverbs, for they all in some way qualify the verb to which they are attached.

It will be understood then that, though the name Conjunction is for the sake of convenience applied to Conjunction-Adverbs, Conjunctions are really adjectives or adverbs with a special force or power of joining.

39 Conjunctions may be classed as Conjoining, Adjoining, or Subjoining Conjunctions, according as they conjoin, adjoin, or subjoin sentences. To understand this distinction, a few words must be said about Sentences.

A Sentence, to be a sentence, must contain at least a Subjectword and verb. But the sentence may be either Simple or Compound.

A Simple sentence consists of only one sentence: as, 'John runs.'

A Compound sentence consists of two or more sentences, one of which is called the Main sentence; while the others, commonly called Subordinate or Bye sentences, are so joined on the Main sentence, as to be in some way or other dependent on it.