131 "Mephitic Gases in Mines-No. II. 132 ried out from the bottoms of the pits are generally short and simple; because the expense of sinking these shafts is comparatively small; and, therefore, to obtain a given surface of a coal stratum in these situations, a much greater number of pits are sunk than coal miners deem it prudent to sink, where a stratum of coal lies at a great depth beneath the earth's surface; the cost of sinking shafts being in deep situations exceedingly great. Carbonic acid gas is specifically heavier than atmospheric air, it therefore occupies the floor of a mine; and it is only when it exists in immense quantities, that it rises high and approaches the roof. It is, therefore, a sluggish gas, unapt to ascend, and having once accumulated in so confined a situation, as some compartments of mines are, is extremely difficult to disperse. This gas is called by miners the choke-damp; because the sensation of carbonic acid gas, when inhaled by them upon the lungs, is that of suffocation: indeed, it is in this manner it acts upon the human frame; covered and demonstrated that this gas is a simple substance. Chlorine, combined with sodium, forms that eminently valuable substance, denominated, from its universal use, common salt; hence it every where abounds throughout the ocean, and yet more in brine springs and rock-salt amidst the earth. There is, therefore, no lack of this substance in creation; almost every where, by land or by water, the traveller comes in contact with chlorine; if not in its simple, uncompounded gas, in its various combinations with other substances. It is highly probable, that to the presence of chlorine we may fairly attribute that preserving power in common salt which we behold every day exerted by that active substance; and the delicate fibres of animals, preserved in salt, entire, for the use of man during his longest voyages and most arduous journeys, and which yield nutriment at the end of months, and even years-instead of passing into a state of putrefaction and becoming useless, as the flesh of animals does within a short period from the time of their being slaughtered-inducing suffocation, and, of course, instant affords such an useful example of this preserving power in that substance, that, had we no other instance, this would be sufficient to fix upon our minds a feeling of its high utility. We are too well acquainted with lime to need a moment's note thereon, and water also; and the mode in which these three substances, viz. chlorine, lime, and water, are combined, so as to form the chloride of lime, may be found in chemical works in general; but most readily in Dr. Ure's Dictionary of Chemistry, published in 1823, page 556, under the head, Chloride of Lime, and page 558, under the head of Bleaching Powder. Having thus far proceeded, by way of introduction, we now pass on to the main subject in hand, viz. mephitic gases in mines. It appears to me to be needful, on descending to particulars, in the first place to point out, separately, the gases which we denominate mephitic, to hint in what manner these gases are generated, and how they operate in mines; and, in the second place, separately and distinctly hint at the modes by which these mephitic operations may be counteracted, and these gases rendered harmless to the miner during his dailyoperations beneath the earth's surface. I have observed in mines situate near the escarpments of minerals, especially in coal mines, that carbonic acid gas is in general the most prevalent. These mines are seldom at great depths beneath the surface of the earth, and the galleries which are car death. In shallow mines, and short galleries, the combustible gases, being of lesser specific gravity than atmospheric air, generally find their way upward, before they can accumulate in sufficient quantities to become destructive to the miners, and, in contact with atmospheric air, disperse with great rapidity. Carbon enters largely into the composition of coal, limestone, and the gangue of ores, or the matter which occupies the veins in which ores in general are found. Three-fourths of the substances of some coals are carbon, and few or no coals exist wherein carbon is less in quantity than one half their substance; limestone contains upwards of forty per cent. of carbon, and those spars which generally occupy the veins of ores contain large quantities of this gas. It cannot then be matter of wonder that in the immediate vicinity of substances which contain such portions of carbon, portions of this Pros should be detached from its original combinations, and found at large. A variety of circumstances cause the desintegeration o of these mineral substances; among which are the following. The dislocations and fractures of strata during the general deluge, and subsequent earthquakes, generating considerable heat by the friction of these disparted masses against each other during the act of dislocation or fracture, disengaged immense quantities of carbon from those substances with which it was originally combined, and left this carbon amidst the fissures and caverns which these gas disruptions created; and ever and anon, as ་ the miner bursts in upon these caverns and fissures in the ordinary or extraordinary operations of mining, this carbon becomes diffused, and occupies the various compartments of his mine. The action of water, in its progress amidst the subterraneous channels of this sphere, upon pyrites and other substances, also, frequently generates heat, and produces effects similar to the above, upon a smaller scale. In the most compact stratum, small apertures, open joints, cracks, and chasms, are perceptible, and in strata less compact these abound; and in almost every instance they are filled with gas, which has exuded from the adjoining substances; and when any or all these are opened by the miner, the gas contained therein must issue forth and occupy a portion of the mine; and, although pure carbon is lighter, no sooner does it come in contact with atmospheric air, than it extracts oxygen therefrom, and instantly becomes heavier than air, bearing the name of carbonic acid gas; carbon and oxygen being the constituents of this gas. In coal mines and mines situate in limestone, or veins filled with calcareous matter, carbon is in its native element, and may there be looked for with the certainty of finding it in rich abundance indeed, it would be wonderful, under all the circumstances through which this sphere has passed during the rush of every age since the creation, if a gas so subtle as carbon had not, amidst substances in which it is so abundant, escaped, and formed frequent lodgments. A lighted candle introduced into carbonic acid gas is instantly, extinguished, and a living animal is as instantly killed. The language of the boisterous tempest to the mariner amidst his voyage upon the ocean, the language of darkness descending upon the traveller amidst his journeying over the surface of the sphere, the language of the thunder-storm to the aeronaut amidst his course, amongst the clouds, and the language of the gases, a darkness to be felt, to the miner amidst his progress far the surface, is, Beware! in the L nessing some expression, by word or gesture, indicative of feelings within his bosom which approached the awful, and led to the conclusion that uncertainty hung upon his soul, as he swung beneath the capstan wheel, whether he should again be permitted to behold the expanse of heaven, and enjoy, as heretofore, upon the earth the light of day. It is in the order of Divine Providence and in infinite wisdom that this play of feelings, or action and reaction upon the soul, should accompany the avocations of man, especially where those avocations are fraught with danger to his person; it is crying, "Be ye ready, for in such a day and in such an hour as ye think not, the Son of man may come." And thus does the Infinite seek to detach the soul of man from the earth; to detach him from that feeling which would induce him to rest in mere earthly objects; and in thus loosening him from earth, to teach his immortal spirit to soar up to its homethe heaven of heavens; where Christ, his Redeemer, sits at the right hand of God, to receive His ransomed ones, and welcome them to glory. Happy, indeed, would it be for man, if, amidst his numerous warnings and presentiments of the danger of sudden dissolution, he learned wisdom, bowed before the Infinite, and sought refuge in Him who, by his Holy Spirit, has sent light and life to man-life for evermore.. Carbonic acid gas was denominated by chemists, mephitic acid, because it could not be respired without occasioning death. In grottos and caves, the outlets of which are higher than their floors, this gas is found near the bottom; being too heavy and sluggish to rise over the barriers which their elevated openings present; and woe to the animal which descends therein; no sooner has it descended into this gas, than it ceases to breathe; and such is its suffocating energy, that few instances have occurred of resuscitation after the animal has been immersed therein. (To be continued.). ON COUNTY ASYLUMSE SHOULD a sincere and zealous minister, benealife thou art in deaths !" And few who believes he has a call to preach the midst of are the men, however accustomed to mining operations, who descend the shaft of a mine without feeling, and frequently expressing, an awful sense of their peculiar situation. Indeed, however profligate, however thoughtless, however headstrong, the conduct of the man while upon the surface, I never yet descended with a miner into the bowels of the earth, where the depth of the shaft was great, without wit Gospel, find, those doctrines he holds sacred, controverted and traduced, it would be a severe trial to his feelings; but the trial would be still more severe upon meeting with nothing but total neglect, and finding his best efforts quite useless.Something similar to the latter case is mine. The earnest injunctions and admonitions of a much revered relative on his death-bed, and my promise given, impressed upon me a strong conviction that I was under a moral and religious obligation to devote the remainder of my life entirely to the care and the cure of the insane. But I took a more comprehensive view of the subject than my relation did; for, as he had imparted to me what he thought superior information, upon what is unquestionably of great importance to suffering humanity, I considered myself as under an obligation to impart that information to others, as much as lay in my power. And truly, in conversation, in writing, and publishing, and the delivery of a lecture to many hundreds, gratis, I have been at some pains, and been at no trifling expense but with my feelings and convictions, I could do no less. I have not to complain of contradiction, for not a single opinion that I have advanced upon the subject has, to my knowledge, ever been disputed but my observations have been wofully neglected. No book could be more strongly commended, or recommended to perusal by the reviews of the day, than my "Domestic Guide in cases of Insanity" was, published twenty-one years ago;-and yet copies, at 2s. each, were not sold, sufficient to pay the expense of advertising; and those I gave away, I have reason for believing were generally not read. "Tis true, a single copy was sold at an auction, some years ago, at Dublin, for two guineas; but that brought me neither profit nor honour, for my name was not affixed. And, as far as my free communications, given in very plain language, were known to the medical profession, I am given to believe, that with a few exceptions they have created a strong prejudice against me, and, as far as their recommendation of patients go, and upon which my success as a keeper so much depends, they have done me great injuryand as far as my pecuniary interests are concerned, it would have been much better if I had made no pretentions whatever to a knowledge of insanity, or of its proper treatment. I am well aware that I have made my self liable to the imputation of being an empiric, and, therefore, should not have presumed to give my opinions so freely, had I known, or heard, of any regular school of medicine in reference to insanity. All the medical books I have met with, speak of the disease as a local inflammatory affection; but it is certainly no such thing in its incipient or recent state, whatever it may become as an effect of long excite ment. What I most strongly insist upon in my 136 first publication is, the very bad system of confinement for lunatics in large asylums; the bad effects of excessive depletion as a medical practice, and the necessity of a very gentle but persevering medical treatment; with a wish to diminish the horrors of insanity, and divest it of the superstitious gloom with which it is so much enveloped; by stating our liability to it from natural causes. Since this publication, large asylums for the insane have been increased more than fourfold in England, and the evils of incurable insanity have greatly augmented, and excessive depletion, in particular, copious phlebotomy, still continues as a common practice, or no medical practice at all, and the horrors of insanity have necessarily increased from the horrors of large prison-like madhouses. So much for the success of my first publication. In my second publication, I transcribed from Pinel, the French physician, an ample description of two institutions for the insane, one ancient, the other modern. In two instances, and two only, as far as I know, this description and my other suggestions, have been strictly adhered to, and acknowledged, in the establishing of public institutions for the care and the cure of the insane. But these instances are more than three thousand miles from the British shore. I must entreat the candid reader not to impute to me invidious or selfish motives in what I have to say against county asylums. My private interests have not suffered, so far as I know, from any public asylum. Indeed, if ever I had a chance of pecuniary advantage from my profession, it has been since the county asylum law cleared my house of pauper lunatics. Be fore that, my accommodations were nearly all taken up by patients that afforded me little or no profit; many I cured by whom I lost money; and the aggregate of what I received upon the recovery of fif ty pauper lunatics, was under six hundred pounds, that is, less than twelve pounds each upon the average, for curing, and keeping while under process of cure. only profit I calculated upon from pauper lunatics was, the value of their labour in the garden and fields; and it is my decided opinion that large public asylums, so far from diminishing the practice in wellconducted private asylums, tend to increase it. The go, they may have succeeded in part, but | best treatment, and what is established by really they do not appear to possess infor- a law of the land. mation sufficient to comprehend the im-Could any thing be more truly ridicu portance of the best treatment in compari-lous than the fixing upon the quantity of son with the worst, or what is required in a twenty-five acres of land, for the accomsystem for the best purposes of cure, or the modation of eight hundred and seventybest comforts of the insane. Their want of three lunatics, and their keepers; it is at information › may be their misfortune, and the rate of more than twenty thousand, not their fault; but it is culpable to act for a square mile, and what space would with confidence, in a matter of so much this give for those exercises and employments moment, without the best information that so necessary to those lunatics? They would could be obtained. It does not appear be a complete mob, a mob of mad people. that any professional person has been con- Two hundred acres would be little enough sulted by the magistrates of Middlesex, for that number; and as the labour of lunaand they take upon themselves a most fics might be made productive, the eultiawful responsibility. Thousands of paupers vation of land, under spade husbandry, yet unborn, may execrate the memory of might bring great gain to the institution, those who established the system of large and prove the best means of recovery, and asylums for the confinement of lunatics. comfort, to the patients. Regular emAnd truly I have never been able to dis- ployment for those previously accustomed cover a particle of knowledge, in what re- to it, is of the first importance, and in conlates to the proper treatment of the insane; trast to the irksomeness of inaction, its either in the county asylum law, or in those advantages must be obvious;-and the use who have acted under its provisions. All, of a spade, or a hoe, or a wheelbarrow, is or the greater part of the public asylums soon learned, if not learned before. that have been established within these last twenty years, are notorious for being in bad situations, the buildings extremely inconvenient, and the system of keeping, particularly in the article of diet, highly improper. In design, as far as is made to appear, they go no further than confine-ligious practice. All moral treatment prement, and that too at an enormous expense; for the interest of the money expended on these large buildings, added to the cost of keeping, will very much enhance the parish expenses of this class of paupers. If, however, they had a better chance of recovery, the cost should not be a consideration. I But let us compare what is done, with what I am sure might be done. Take a hundred fresh cases, and put them into one of more of our large asylums, and it cannot be expected, from all the reports we Hear, that more than thirty will recover, an expenses say twenty pounds each. Twenty may die after an average expense of a hundred pounds each, and fifty live out the average term of human life, costing the institution at least three hundred pounds each, making a total of parochial expense of seventeen thousand and six hundred pounds! Under the best treatment, eighty at least would perfectly recover at, say twenty pounds expense each. Ten might might die at one hundred pounds expense each, and ten might live, to cost three hundred pounds each: making a total of five thousand six hundred pounds; that is, twelve thousand pounds difference betwixt the parochial expense required under the 110.-VOL. X. A moral fitness is particularly required in an institution for the insane;-none can be perfect that are not calculated to be acceptable to the feelings of those most likely to become inmates ;-and they require the suggestions of wisdom, humanity, and re supposes a moral sense in the patient, and as much as possible they should be treated as rational beings; and, in fact, they are all rational at intervals. If they can be brought to believe that those who have the care of them are wise, and good, and conscientiously do their duty, it is a great point gained.-Lunatics have knowledge, and feelings, and keen sensibilities; and our moral treatment requires that we should be fully aware of this, and act upon it as a leading principle. At the same time it may be insisted upon, that the very best treatment is not only attended with less expense, but it is less troublesome, than the worst; for, if recovery is not effected by the best treatment, it most certainly abates the violence of the symptoms, so as to make the management more easy, or the "Conversing with an unfortunate man, who was confined as a lunatic in a wretched parish workhouse, I said, "Well, from all that I can hear of your case, I think it is by no means hopeless under proper treatment, and patience on your part, you may perfectly recover, and return in good health and spirits to your family. His reply, (and the manner of it, I shall not forget so long as I can remember any thing,) was, "But, O sir, can I ever recover in this place? K 139 ........... Essays on Physiology: Essay IV. here I am, confined amongst these wretched beings, day after day, and week after week, and month after month."-It is many years ago, and I understand he remained there; attempts were made to have him put under my care, but he was never brought. On contemplating the pandorean box of ills occasioned by insanity, I still find hope at the bottom; and I still hope that the suggestions of increasing knowledge upon the subject, and the feelings of humanity, will, ere long, produce one or more hospitals for the cure of insanity gratis, upon the best principles possible. For this, I shall not cease to labour while I can labour, and I intend my next appeal to be to both houses of parliament, by way of petition. THOS. BAKEWELL. Spring Vale near Stone, Dec. 22, 1827. ESSAYS ON PHYSIOLOGY, OR THE LAWS OF ORGANIC LIFE. (Continued from col. 51.) ESSAY IV.-On the Powers by which the Operations of the Organic Frame are carried on. We have now, we hope, sufficiently explained what is to be understood by the term percipient sensibility, or perception, and how its powers are exhibited in the organic frame; it is that property by which we are aware of our being, and by which we are connected to the world around us: it is by this that we experience pleasure and pain, and every emotion. All that embitters life, or renders it desirable, acts through this medium; in fact, deprived of this property, man and the animal would resemble the plant, and rise up and pass away in a state of utter unconsciousness. Let us now turn our attention to those phenomena which man, in common with all animated nature, exhibits, and which, depending on that power termed latent sensibility, are carrying on their operations throughout the system, silently indeed, and unnoticed, except in their effects. These phenomena are all subservient to the organic life of the individual, and comprehend the operations by which the growth of the frame is effected, its bulk maintained, and its losses repaired. How complicated is the animal machine! and how numberless and intricate are the actions there constantly in progress. Here, to mingle with the vital fluid, the lacteals pour along their milky streams; here, the red tide, carrying warmth and life, flows through countless 140 mazes; here, like unwearied labourers, the most minute vessels are depositing, particle by particle, the solid bone, the contractile muscle, or the lucid humours of the eye; here, too, the absorbents ply their task, unbuilding and removing, and striving, as it were, for victory; hence is the frame subjected to a perpetual succession of particles, till life becomes extinct! During a certain period of its existence the animal frame grows, or increases in size, when at length, the natural stature being acquired, it becomes stationary, This gradual increase, or growth, is effected by the appropriation and assimilation of fresh matter, which received into the system, becomes there vivified and deposited in various parts, as its wants may require. But this operation is continued, not only while the body is growing, but when this growth is complete; for as it perpetually undergoes loss, this must be continually repaired, otherwise the body becomes attenuated, and dies from exhaustion. That the animal frame should be capable of assimilating, or converting extraneous inanimate matter into a portion of itself, living and sensitive, is an astonishing and inexplicable fact; nor is it less so, that minute arterial ramifications, all proceeding from one and the same stock, and offering no apparent difference in construction, should be endowed with the property of separating from the blood (according to the several parts each may be destined to nourish) earthy matter, or fibrine, or fluids of various compositions, density, and transparency these are facts, the causes of which ingenuity fails to unravel, and in which conjecture is lost. With respect to the nutrition of animals, this observation will, we think, be found generally to hold good; viz. that animals require for their support, particles which have immediately belonged to, and formed part of, organized bodies, either of the animal or vegetable kingdom; being, as we may hence conclude, unable to assimilate particles belonging immediately to bodies purely inorganic: and it would seem also, that animals derive a larger proportion of nutritive matter from bodies whose composition is similar to their own, that is, from other animals, than from vegetable substances. Now, although the natural food of many animals consists entirely of vegetable matter, yet we see that such require and consume a much larger quantity in proportion, than carnivorous animals, which make flesh their food. For instance, the weight of matter requisite for the support of a carnivorous animal, is infinitely less than |