same pupils with figures, serves to strengthen the belief that many of the conclusions drawn from the memory tests are applicable to the learning of spelling.

Comparison of good and bad spelling.—Each teacher in the Ogden School furnished the names of the five poorest and the five best spellers of her room. This gave an opportunity to study the characteristics of good and bad spellers. While on the whole the good spellers have decidedly better memory power than the bad spellers, yet there are individuals among the poor spellers who are superior in memory power, and individuals among the best spellers whose memory power is scarcely up to the average of their age. While this native power of sense memory plays an important rôle, it is by no means the only factor in learning to spell.

It should be added, also, that while the number of sight and hearing defects is greater among the poor spellers, yet there are among the very best spellers pupils with marked sensory defects.

Some conclusions and suggestions.-1. In these tests of memory an attempt has been made to divest the matter to be memorized of as many associations as possible, and so to measure the native strength of the memory. The power thus measured is passive; it is blind; it attempts to take and give back without change, to return an echo of the sensations. It shows what the child can apprehend, not what he can comprehend. Good teaching attempts to make the mind active and alert, causing it to compare, associate, and classify. It is the province of the school to discipline this native power of memory; to bring forth skill where originally there is only strength. The teacher should aim to develop from the native sense memory an organized rational memory. It is said that English spelling is illogical, but this is true in part only, and the teacher should use every available opportunity to see that the child uses his rational memory instead of depending too largely on the native force of his sense memory.

2. Those with superior memory power being in superior physical condition, as shown by the anthropometric tests, clearly indicates that the immediate sense memory is dependent upon good brain formation and nutrition. The skillful and rational use of this memory power is dependent upon habitual use; hence on education and experience. All these factors are significant in learning to spell.

3. Where the matter memorized has been divested of associations, repetition is necessary for the securing of deep and lasting impressions. Wherever logical association is possible there can be a more efficacious method of study. In studying, the child should be habituated to depend upon comparing and classifying, rather than upon mere repetition. Children are so prone to depend upon blind repetition that they sometimes put forth as much effort in studying the words that they have long thoroughly known as they do upon unfamiliar words, and use as much energy in studying the parts of a word that present no difficulty as they do upon the unknown portions. A wise direction of the child's energies would greatly shorten the time necessary for the mastery of English orthography.

4. While usually the better spellers are possessed of better memory power than are the poor spellers, yet there are bad spellers with a high development of memory. Superior memory may make the acquisition of spelling easy, yet it by no means removes the necessity for some intelligent application on the part of the pupil. While most good spellers tend toward the visual type, still there are both good and bad spellers of each type.

5. The fact that children have the ear memory stronger during the early years suggests at once that the teaching of spelling to the young will be effective if the ear is appealed to; that there is probably a place for oral spelling; that there should be some pronunciation of syllables with the spelling; that the words presented to the child at first should be, as far as possible, phonetic in their spelling, leaving the "more cruel and unusual" forms of English orthography to be learned in later years, when the eye memory has become stronger.

ED 1902-72

6. The investigation shows that there is no "memory period," no period in early school life when the memory is stronger than it is at any later portion of the child's life, a period especially adapted for learning to spell. While there are no memory stages, there are undoubtedly periods of interest that are especially favorable for the child's learning to spell; times when, through the influence of companions or teachers, the child is aroused from indifference or from a feeling that spelling is a small part of life to a recognition that it is important.

7. It has been pointed out that during early school life the auditory memory is the stronger, and later that the visual memory is stronger. During the whole of school life the audio-visual memory is stronger than either the auditory or visual; that is, a simultaneous appeal to both sight and hearing produces a richer and more usable image than is brought about by an appeal to either sense alone. This fact is very far-reaching in its application to teaching. The audio-visual-articulatory memory, in which the impression is produced by an appeal to the hearing, sight, and the muscle sense, is even stronger than the audio-visual. It would seem from this that the more senses we can appeal to the deeper will be the impression. This fact should be made use of in spelling drills.

8. The aim in teaching spelling should be to render words of the most frequent use automatic, to have them so well known that in writing they will flow from the point of the pen, requiring but little thought as to their formation. Then there is a large class of words of less frequent occurrence which should be recalled on slight reflection. For the more unusual words the individual should have the dictionary habit so firmly fixed that he will conscientiously look up every word he needs to write if in doubt about its correct spelling. The spelling of words is rendered automatic through practice in writing them. Though the first grasp of the word may well be made through other combinations of sense memories, yet the final retention of the spelling of most words should be through the audio-visual-hand-motor memory.

9. The per cent of pupils having sight and hearing defects is greater among the poor spellers than among the good spellers; yet there are pupils with decided sensory defects among the very best spellers. While these sensory defects are handicaps in learning to spell, still they may be overcome through careful application by those pupils who have good memory power.

10. Much that has been said here concerning the teaching of spelling will apply with but slightly diminished force to instruction in the other branches of the curriculum.

CHAPTER XXVIII.

EDUCATION IN RUSSIA.

BY E. KOVALEVSKY,

Member of the Scientific Committee, Ministry of Public Instruction in Russia.

Most of the educational institutions in Russia are under the direction of the ministry of public instruction, but there are many special schools which depend upon the other administrative departments, including a series of technical and commercial schools and a complete system of agricultural schools.

SUPERIOR TECHNICAL INSTITUTIONS.

The want of men with higher technical education is very sensibly felt in Russia, and as a consequence the influx of secondary students wishing to enter the special higher schools is increasing with every year, even in greater numbers than these schools can receive. In the year 1898 7,000 applications were presented in the different institutes, while only 2,000 students could be admitted. The Government shows its disposition to help the progress of technical instruction. Since the year 1895 five large, new, higher establishments (three polytechnical schools in St. Petersburg, Warsaw, and Kief, a technological institute in Tomsk, and an engineering school in Moscow) have been founded. Taking in consideration the importance that chemistry has lately acquired in Russian industry the State has constructed new laboratories in the existing schools (St. Petersburg Technological Institute and Riga Polytechnical School) in the hope of increasing the number of the students of the chemistry departments, who till now formed only 26 per cent of all students of technology.

The expenditures of the ministry of public instruction alone for the support of higher technical education amount to a million and a half of rubles. The ministry of finance assigned seven millions for the construction of the last polytechnical school.

There are at present (1902) 13 superior technical institutions in Russia, with 8,000 students, viz: Four technological institutes, 4 polytechnical schools, 2 engineering schools, 1 school of civil engineering, 1 of mining, and 1 of electrotechnics.

The aim of all these establishments is to train engineers for the service of the State, competent to act as foremen in factories, in industrial enterprises, and on public works.

The students are accepted graduates of secondary schools, selected by competitive examination. They attend the institutes for five years, the last year including a practical course. Besides their theoretical studies, they are sent every summer to practical work in factories and on railroads.

The list of the 13 higher schools is as follows:

1. The Technological School in St. Petersburg, one of the oldest technical schools, opened in 1828. There are two divisions, the mechanical and the chemical, attended by 1,109 students. The State assigns for it yearly 275,628 rubles.

2. The Technological Institute in Kharkof, dating from 1885. It has 685 students and receives yearly 341,544 rubles from the State.

3. The Moscow Imperial Technical High School, with 865 students, organized like the two preceding. The yearly income of 269,500 rubles includes 208,000 given by the State.

4. The Technological Institute in Tomsk (Siberia), founded in 1900. This school has accommodations for 220 students.

5. The Polytechnical School in St. Petersburg, ready to be opened next autumn (1903), and designed for 1,800 students, with the 4 following departments: Economy, shipbuilding, metallurgy, and electrotechnics.

6. The Polytechnical Institute in Riga, having 6 divisions, viz: Chemistry, mechanics, agronomy, commercial sciences, architecture, and engineering, and attended by 1,446 students. This school is chiefly supported by the city of Riga. 7. The Polytechnical Institute in Kief, consisting of 4 divisions, viz: Mechanics, engineering, agronomy, and chemistry. It has 710 students.

8. The Polytechnical Institute in Warsaw, with only 3 divisions, while a fourth division of mining is to be founded next year. It has 644 students, and was chiefly constructed from the means provided by the city and the local Polish societies, which presented during the visit of the Emperor to Warsaw a million for this purpose in memory of his visit.

9. The Institute of Railway Engineers in St. Petersburg, containing 886 students. 10. The Engineering School in Moscow, attended by 300 students.

11. The Institute of Civil Engineers is supported by the sum of $2,000 rubles, yearly appropriated by the State. The number of the students is 350.

12. The Institute of Mining in St. Petersburg, which is very ancient. It was founded about a century ago, in 1795, in the reign of Catherine II; 480 students are studying there; 156,205 rubles are appropriated yearly for this school. The institute is celebrated for its splendid mineral collections.

13. The Electro-Technical Institute, the aim of which is to prepare engineers for the State's telegraphs and telephones. The maximum number of students is 300. It will be of interest to compare Russia with other European countries as regards higher technical education. According to the statistical tables for the year 1898-99 exhibited in the Paris exhibition, the number of higher technical students in Germany was 15,000, in Russia 8,000, in Austria 3,500, in France 1,500, in Italy and Switzerland 1,200, while in Spain and Denmark the number did not exceed 500.

OTHER TECHNICAL AND SPECIAL SCHOOLS.

Intermediate and elementary technical and industrial education in Russia is supervised by a special division of the ministry of public instruction, formed in the year 1883. To this division was given the work of drawing up the general educational programme which received the imperial sanction in 1888.

All the boys' schools of middle and lower grades directed by the division of industrial schools are divided, according to the object they have in view, into five groups.

1. The technical schools with the course of the middle grade educational establishments. Their aim is to provide their pupils with a general education, and also with that amount of technical education that is necessary to qualify them for positions as assistant engineers or for acting as foremen in smaller industrial enterprises.

These schools consist either (1) of 4 special classes where students are received after a five-years' course in a secondary "Realschule;" or (2) a five-years' general course is attached to the last 4 technical classes; or (3) the 7 classes of the middle technical school contain both the general and the special subjects.

The number of such schools is 20; the most noteworthy among them are the school of Krasnoonfinsk (furnishing teachers for the mine works), the Komnessorof School

in Moscow, and the industrial school in Lodz, preparing textile and weaving specialists.

2. The lower technical schools, in which such subjects of general education are taught as are found in the programmes of the higher elementary schools; their aim is to prepare master workmen for the factories, specialists in the ruder kind of mechanical work, machinists, and draftsmen. Their number is also 20.

3. The so-called artisan schools, 22 of higher and 55 of lower grade, with a programme of general subjects resembling that of the elementary schools. They prepare master workmen in the domestic industries, and give instruction in carpentering, carving, blacksmithing, tailoring, shoemaking, bookbinding, etc.

The most noteworthy for their specialties are (1) the artisan schools of leather fabrication in Bogorodsk and Bazarmy Karkoulac (the objects exhibited by the latter were sent after the Paris exhibition to England in exchange for a collection from a bootmaking school); (2) the school of toy making in Totma, and (3) the school of bonnet making in Samara.

4. The 67 industrial schools with different specialties in their programmes, to which may be added the schools for adults, such as the schools of printing, the evening classes of the Imperial Technical Society, etc.

5. The newly created 18 schools for apprentices, the aim of which is to replace the hard years of apprenticeship in a workshop under the direction of an ignorant master by a course giving some general education and the theoretical knowledge necessary for a workman besides his practice. Boys of 11 to 13 years attend these schools before entering a factory workshop under the oversight of an experienced master. Most of these schools are founded near large factories for their workmen.

The number of pupils attending these 209 schools was, in 1900, nearly 13,000. The expenditures of the year amount to nearly 2,000,000 rubles, of which the State supplies 34.9 per cent, the local institutions 21 per cent, the income of funds 16.3 per cent, fees for teaching 12.3 per cent, the selling of the objects made in the workshops by the pupils 4.5 per cent, while the remaining 11.2 per cent proceeds from different

sources.

During the years 1888 to 1898, while the division of industrial schools proceeded with its work, the yearly income of the middle and lower grade technical schools increased from 400,000 rubles to nearly 2,000,000, thanks to the constant gifts presented for this purpose by private individuals, townships, and associations. Among these benefactions may be noted that of the celebrated railway contractor Chigof, who left a fund of 5,000,000 rubles for the construction of 5 industrial schools in the province of Kostrome, where he was born. Mr. N. Kareznik of left 3,000,000 rubles for a technical boarding school in Irkutsk. The councilor of commerce, Mr. Komarof, left 3,500,000 rubles for an artisan school in Rykinsk; the merchant Pastouhof, 380,000 rubles. The municipality of Moscow gave 850,000, the magistrate of Lodz 200,000, the city of Odessa 1,000,000, and a series of other municipalities more than 100,000 rubles each, for the construction of technical schools.

The intention of the ministry of public instruction is to open every year two or three middle grade technical schools, five or six artisan schools, and ten or eleven schools of the lowest grade. The expense will amount to the sum of 1,500,000 rubles yearly; but only by this course can a satisfactory result be obtained, owing to the evident need in Russia of men with special education.

In the year 1902 a series of artisan schools are to be constructed in the localities where some domestic (or "kush") industry is particularly developed. In the Crimea a coopers' school will be necessary for the vine dressers, in Kimry (a village where leather is fabricated) a shoemaking school, in the agricultural provinces schools of agricultural machinery, etc.

The professional schools for girls are less numerous; their programmes as well as their incomes are various. There were in 1899-1900 48 professional girls' schools, 30 professional classes and workshops, 15 cookery schools, 105 needlework classes