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RURAL ECONOMY, INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS, PRICES CURRENT.

VOL. IX.

AGRICULTURE.

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BALTIMORE, MARCH 23, 1827.

or in the hedges, or against willow poles or rude
espalier rails. The olive is not very common, but
is planted in schistous declivities in warm situations;

THE AGRICULTURE OF MODERN ITALY.apple, pear. and greengage plums are common.
The implements and operations of agriculture in
Lombardy are both very imperfect. The plough is
of very rude contrivance, with a handle thirteen
or fourteen feet long. It is drawn by two oxen
without a driver or reins, the ploughman using a
long light rod or goad. The names given to the
different parts of the plough are corruptions or va-
riations of the Roman terms. Corn is generally
beaten out by a wheel or large fluted cylinder,
which is turned in a circular track, somewhat in the
manner of a bark-mill in England.

The poplars supply leaves for feeding heifers
rods which are sold for making espaliers for vines,
and spray for fuel. Every now and then a few are
cut down for timber, as at twenty years they are
found to be too large for the situation. The top of
the ash and maple is used for fuel; the timber for
implements of husbandry. The mulberry is pol-
larded every other year for the leaves, which are
stripped off for the silk worms, and the spray used
as fuel. The produce of raw silk is one of the
most important in Tuscany, and is almost the only
article the farmer of the plains has to exchange for
money. He has wine also, it is true; but that,
though produced in abundance, is of so wretched a
quality, compared with that of the hills, that it
brings but little.

The cattle of Piedmont are, in some cases, fed with extraordinary care. They are tied up in stalls; then bled once or twice; cleaned and rubbed with oil; afterwards combed and brushed twice a day. Their food in summer is clover, or other green herbage; in winter a mixture of elm leaves, clover Maize is sown in drills, and forms a superb crop hay, and pulverized walnut cake, over which boil-in appearance, and no less important, constituting ing water is poured, and bran and salt added.- the principal food of the lower classes in every part Where grains (pouture,) can be procured, they are of Italy, where the chestnut does not abound. also given. In a short time the cattle cast their When the male flowers of the maize begin to fade, hair, grow smooth, round, fat, and so improved as they are cut off by degrees, so as not to injure the to double their value to the butcher. swelling grain; the leaves are also cut off about that time, cattle being remarkably fond of them. In the plain of Bologna, hemp, flax, and beans, enter into the rotation.

The dairies on the plain of the Po, near Lodi, pro duce the Parmesan cheese. The peculiar qualities of this cheese depend more on the manner of mak ing than on any thing else. The cows are a mixed breed, between the red Hungarian, or Swiss cow, and those of Lombardy. The chief peculiarity in their feeding is, that they are allowed to eat four or five hours in the twenty-four; all the rest of the time they are stalled and get hay. Both their rasture and hay are chiefly from irrigated lands. The cheeses are made entirely from skimmed milk: half of that which has stood sixteen or seventeen bours, and half of which has stood only six hours. The milk is beated and coagulated in a cauldron, placed in a very ingenious fire place, being an inverted semicone in brick work, well adapted for preserving heat and the use of wood as fuel. Without being taken out of the cauldron, the curd is broken very small by an implement, consisting of a stick with cross wires; it is again heated, or rather scalded, till the curd, now a deposition from the whey, has attained a considerable degree of firmness; it is then taken out, drained, salted, and pressed, and in forty days is fit to put in the cheese left. The peculiar properties of this cheese seem to depend on the mode of scalding the curd, though the dairyists pretend that it also depends on the mode of feeding the cows. Where one farmer has not enough of cows to carry on the process himself, it is common for two or more to join and keep a partnership account, as in Switzerland.

Among the trees grown by the farmer, the mulberry predominates, and is pollarded once or oftener every year for the silk worm. The tree is common in the hedge rows, and in rows along with vines parallel to broad ridges. The vine is generally cultivated; trained or rather hung on mulberry, maple, or flowering ash pollards, or climbing up tall elms,

*To pollard, is to cut off the limbs. This is done to procure the leaves, in preference to picking or stripping

them from the branches.

No. 1.-VOL. 9:

Cattle in the plains are kept constantly in close warm houses, and fed with weeds, leaves, or whatever can be got. The oxen in Tuscany are all dove coloured; even those which are imported from other states, are said to change their coat here. They are guided in the team by reins fixed to rings which are inserted in their nostrils; sometimes two hooks, jointed like pincers, are used for the same purpose. In general, only one crop in four is raised for the food of cattle, so that these are not numerous; it may thus appear that manure would be scarce, but the Tuscan farmers are as assiduous in preserving every particle both of human and animal manure as the Flemings.

The culture of the mountains of Tuscany consists of the harvesting of chestnuts, the management of live stock, and of forests. The chestnut trees, Sismondi is of opinion, have been originally planted, but they now receive no other care than that of replacing a worn out tree by a young one, and cutting out dead wood, which is done more for the sake of fuel than any thing else. The fruit is gathered in November, after it drops on the turf: it is eaten either in its natural state, or it is ground into meal and prepared as flour. Such as are to be ground, are first kiln dried; next, the chestnuts are put into small bags, which hold half a bushel each, and these are beat against the ground till the outer husk is removed; they are then taken out, the outer husks separated, and the chestnuts replaced, and beat as before till the inner husk comes off; they are then cleaned in the wind, and sent to a corn mill to be ground. The flour they produce has no bran, and is mild and sweet, and keeps well. Lands covered with chestnuts are valued not by their extent, but by the number of sacks of fruit annually produced Chestnut flour is chiefly used in the form of porridge or pudding. In the coffee houses of Lucca, Pescia, and Pistoia, patés, muffins, tarts, and other

No. 1.

articles are made of it, and are considered deli cate.

The maremmes of Rome, forty leagues in extent, are divided only into a few hundred estates, and let to not more than eighty farmers. These farmers grow corn, and pasture oxen of their own; and in winter they graze the wandering flocks of the mountains of Tuscany and other states at so much a head. The corn grown is chiefly wheat, which is reaped by peasants from the mountains, some of whom also stay and assist in sowing the succeeding crop; whence, the whole disappear; and the maremmes remain a desert with a few men, whom Chateauvieux designates as "half savages, who run over these solitudes like Tartars, armed with long lances and covered with coarse woollens and untanned skins." The lance they use in hunting down the oxen when any are to be caught for the butcher, or to break-in for labour; and the clothing alluded to has been recommended by the medical men of Rome, as the most likely to resist the attacks of the malaria, (bad air,) or pestilence.

The agricultural implements and operations differ little from those of other parts of Italy. The plough, or araire of Rome, is a rude implement, with a broad flat share, on the hinder end of which the ploughman stands; and thus drawn along, his weight makes a deeper furrow. Two strips of wood (the bina auris of Virgil,) about eighteen inches long, are often attached to the share, diverging a little from each other, and these serve to lay open the furrow like our mould board. In the operation of propagating the vine, cuttings are planted in trenches four feet deep, into which stones have been previously thrown, for the alleged purpose of encouraging moisture about the roots. mode was practised in Virgil's time. The common Roman cart is supposed to have been originally designed by the celebrated Michael Angelo, in his quality of engineer and wheeler.--Buonarotti. (See Lasteyrie, Col des Mah. &c.)

The same

The farm of Campo Morto, (field of death,) includes the whole property of St. Peter's church in Rome, which is supported from its sole revenue. This vast estate is situated in the Pontine marshes, and the following outline of its management is taken from a letter of Chateauvieux, written in July, 1813:

The farmery, the only building on an estate of many thousand acres, consists of a central building and two wings; the ground floor of the central part consists of an immense kitchen and five large rooms, the latter without windows, and unfurnished. The first story consists of six rooms, used as corn chambers, with the exception of one, which was furnished, and served to lodge the principal officers. The two wings contained large vaulted stables, with bay lofts over. One female lived in the house, in order to cook for the officers or upper servants, whose wives and families live in the towns, as do those of the shepherds. There was no garden, or any appearance of neatness or cleanliness, and not a fence or a hedge, and scarcely a tree on the whole farm.

The fattore, or steward, was an educated man, and a citizen of Rome, where his family lived; he and all the other officers, and even shepherds, always went out mounted and armed.

The reapers were at work in a distant part of the estate, when Chateauvieux went over it: they were

an immense band, ränged as in the order of battle, on our cattle; notwithstanding which, I must ac
and guarded by twelve chiefs or overseers on horse-knowledge that our farming is profitable."
back, with lances in their hands. These reapers
had lately arrived from the mountains; half were
men and the rest women. "They were bathed in
sweat; the sun was intolerable; the men were good
figures, but the women were frightful. They had
been some days from the mountains, and the foul
air had begun to attack them. Two only had yet
taken the fever; but they told me, from that time a
great number would be seized every day, and that
by the end of harvest the troop would be reduced
at least one half. What, then, I said, becomes of
these unhappy creatures? They give them a mor-
sel of bread, and send them back. But whither do
they go? They take the way to the mountains;
some remain on the road, some die, but others ar-
rive, suffering under misery and inanition, to come
again the following year."

The corn is threshed fifteen days after being cut: the grain is trodden out under the feet of horses, cleaned and carried to Rome. The straw was for merly suffered to be dispersed by the wind; but it is now collected in heaps at regular distances over the country, and always on eminences: there it lies ready to be burned on the approach of those clouds of grasshoppers which often devastate the whole of this country."

and the roots to extend themselves; well stocked with manure to supply nourishment; freed from Of annual profit, "I average about five thousand weeds, to prevent any of this nourishment from bepiastres, besides five per cent. on the capital of ing wasted; and to admit the light, air, and weather my flocks. You see, then, that the lands in the to the useful plants. In the hot countries keeping Campagna of Rome,* so despised, and in such a the soil free from weeds, is generally a duty easily state of wildness, let at the rate of eighteen francs performed, and often rendered unnecessary; for (fifteen shillings,) the Paris acre: there is an im-whenever water is withheld, even in the south of mense quantity in France, which does not let for Spain, every living thing is burned up with drought, so much. They would, doubtlessly, let for more if It is remarkable, that in the most northerly parts of they were divided and peopled, but not in the pro- Europe and America, the same effect, especially as portion supposed, for the secret in large farms con- to fibrous rooted perennials, is produced by cold; sists in their economy; and nothing on the subject and in Russia and New England, where there is of agricultural profit is so deceptive as the appear- scarcely any spring, the agriculturist has only to ance they present to our view, for the profit depends plough once, and sow in the same way as in the solely on the amount of the economical combina-hot valleys of the south of Spain, and South Ametions, and not on the richness of the productions rica, where vegetation is equally rapid from the acdisplayed to the eye.”—Letters on Italy, &c. cession of moisture, as it is in the cold plains of Russia from the influence of the sun during the long days of a northern summer. In hot countries putrescent manures are not altogether neglected, but they are much less necessary than in cold countries,

AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE.

Agriculture as influenced by Geographical Circum

stances.

and can be done without where there is abundance of water; there water, intense heat, and light, consequent moist atmosphere, and a well pulverized soil, supply every thing necessary for luxuriant ve getation.

The live stock of the farm consisted of a hundred working oxen; several hundreds of wild cows and bulls kept for breeding, and for the sale of their calves and heifers; two thousand swine, which are fatted by nuts and acorns in the forests belonging to the estate; a hundred horses for the use of the berdsmen. There were four thousand sheep on the low grounds, and six hundred and eighty thousand on the mountains belonging to the estate. Of the latter, eighty thousand belonged to the Negretti breed, whose wool it was intended to have manufac-ver the surface cannot be irrigated, no regular cul-draining, may be mentioned that mixed culture by tured into the dresses of all the mendicant monks in Italy, and into the great coats of the shepherds: the rest were of the Pouille breed, which produces a white wool, but only on the upper part of the body. As mutton is not good, and but little eaten in Italy, they kill most of the tup lambs as soon as they are born, and milk the ewes to make cheese. The temporary flocks had not arrived when Cha teauvieux was at Campo Morto, the fields not being then cleared of their crops.

The culture required for both plants and animals depends materially on climate. It is not easy for a person who has never been out of Britain to conceive a just idea of the aquatic culture even of Ita ly or Spain. In these countries, though most crops, Hence it is that agriculture, considered geographiwhether of grain or roots, require watering, yet cally, admits of two grand divisions, that of the cold some in the rainy season may be obtained in the climates, which may be called agriculture by drainusual way, as melons in Italy and onions in Spain. ing and manures; and that of the hot climates, But in Arabia, Persia and India no culture can be which may be called agriculture by irrigation. To undertaken without water, excepting in the upper the former belongs the greater part of Europe, the regions of mountains. The fundamental process of north of Asia, the north of America, and part of culture in these countries is, to prepare the surface the Australasian isles; to the latter, Egypt, Persia, for the reception of water, and its circulation in India, China, Africa, and great of the south of Ametrenches and gutters, and to procure the water by rica, and part of Australasia. As intermediate beraising it from wells or rivers by machinery. Where tween agriculture by watering, and agriculture by ture need be attempted, or corn crop expected. watering and manuring which prevails in the south Nature, in such situations, produces periodical crops of France, Spain and Italy; and as opposed to the of annual succulents or bulbous rooted plants; and aquatic culture of the torrid zone may be placed the man might, perhaps, to a certain extent, turn this rural economy of the arctic circle, which, from the circumstance of climate to account, by changing prevalence of cold and ice, precludes all culture of the sorts of annual bulbs, &c. from such as are use-the soil, admits little else than the growth of mosses less, to such as are useful. The onion or edible and lichens, and is therefore limited to fishery and crocus or cyperus might, perhaps, be substituted the chase. for the ixia of the Cape; and the sesamum, or some rapid annual, furnishing useful seeds or herbage, for numerous annual weeds, and the cochineal cactus for the shewy but useless Mesembryanthemums and Stapelias of the African wastes. These, however, are only suggestions.

These leading divisions of culture are by no means so absolute as to be determinable by degrees of latitude, so much depending on physical circumstances; as elevation, soil, aspect, island, or continent, &c.; but as an approximation which may impress some general ideas in the mind of the practical agriculturist, we submit the following:

The agriculture of irrigation may be considered as extending thirty-five degrees on each side of the equator.

The agriculture of manures and irrigation, from the thirty-fifth to the forty fifth degree north and south of the equator.

The agriculture of draining and manures, from the forty-fifth degree, north and south of the equa tor, to the sixty-seventh degree, or arctic circle. The arts of fishing and hunting, as the only means arctic circle, to the pole.—[Loudon's Enc. of Agric:

The farmer of this extensive domain is M. Trucci, who pays a rent for it of 22,000 piastres, (4950l.*) This, said M. Trucci to Chateauvieux, "supposes an extent of three thousand rubbi, or six thousand acres, of culturable land. I have nearly as much Culture in the North of Europe depends, for the that is not fit for the plough, and it is there my pigs most part, more on draining lands of their super and my cows principally feed. My three thousand fluous water, than on artificial supplies of that ele Pubbi are divided into nearly nine equal parts of ment. When irrigation is applied, it is limited en three hundred and thirty rubbi each: one of these tirely to grass lands; and that not for the purpose is in fallow, another in corn, and the seven others of supplying such lands with moisture, but for stiin pasture. On the two thousand three hundred mulating by manure held in solution by the water, yubbi, which remain in grass, I support four thou-and for increasing or maintaining heat. The great sand sheep, four hundred horses, two hundred oxen, est care is requisite to prevent this mode of water and I reserve a portion for hav. In the macchie ing from proving more injurious than useful; but (bushy places, woody wastes,) I have seven hundred little danger results from the application of water cows, and sometimes nearly two thousand pigs. in hot countries, and there it is valuable by mode-of subsistence, from the sixty seventh degree, or "My expenses are limited to paying the rent of the farm, to purchasing bread for the workmen, and to the entire maintenance of my army of shepherds, superintendants, and the fattore; to paying for the work of the day-labourers, of the harvest-men, &c. and, in short, to the expense of moving the flocks, and to what, in large farms, is called extra charges, the amount of which is always very high. There must also be deducted from the gross profits of the Campagna of Rome. In the zenith of Roman power The soil for barley should be such as will grow flock about one-tenth, which belongs, in different this district of country was in a high state of cultiva-good turnips, or other green crops, including clotion, covered with cities, villages and villas, and susproportions, to my chiefs and to my shepherds, betained an immense population. Ignorance and indo- vers, and which embrace the varieties of loams and lence have produced the direful contrast Nature has withdrawn none of her bounties. The curse which now rests upon the maremmes of Rome, have been generated by the crimes and follies of man.

cause I support this tenth at my expense. We have also, in this mode of culture, to sustain great losses 21,978 dollars.

rating rather than increasing the temperature of
the soil. Water in the north of Europe is generally
supplied in more than sufficient quantity by the at-
mosphere; and therefore one great object of the
cultivator is to keep the soil thoroughly drained by
surface gutters and subterraneous conductors; to
keep it pulverized for the moisture to pass through,

BARLEY.

MR. SKINNER,-As you seem desirous to introduce Barley, to the Maryland farmers, as a new agricultural staple, with a view to aid you in the laudable design, I send you some brief remarks upon the cultivation of that grain.

sands that are not wet, or very dry and poor. Indeed, I have taken my crops, and they have been pretty good, from my lightest turnip soils. Barley cannot be cultivated to advantage upon stiff, heavy

LIVE STOCK.
Westchester, 3d mo., 2d, 1827.

and wet grounds, or on such as are of a cold and te-salutary, especially if there has been no consideranacious quality. This crop occupies the ground but ble rains. Rolling gives a salutary compression to about three months; and it is only in a dry, light the soil, which in the spring is apt to be loose and ESTeemed Friend, mellow soil, that its roots can extend with sufficient porous, and full of cracks, by the alternation of I am at present confined to my room, and have facility, and supply the food necessary to bring the freezing and thawing, or of wet and dry weather; been for three months past, labouring under a disgrain to rapid and perfect maturity. it destroys many insects; and, above all, it partial-ease of the lungs or breast, occasioned by the rup. Previous crop. Crops that precede this grain, ly buries the crowns of the plants, and induces a ture of a blood vessel, which renders my stay here should be such as leave the ground mellow, and free multiplication of seed stalks. I can recommend the very doubtful. But I seem to have recovered some, from weeds; and for this reason hoed crops are to practice from experience. When grass seeds are and I thought that, perhaps, I could not spend my be preferred, such as turnips, potatoes, peas, beans, sown with barley, the luxuriance of the young grass time more usefully, than to impart (through the me &c. Small grains should not precede it: they im- sometimes chokes the grain, robs it of nutriment, dium of thy paper,) to my brother farmers, some poverish the soil, leave it foul, and besides, it is and sensibly diminishes the product. To obviate information which I have obtained in regard to contravening one of the most salutary maxims of this evil, it has been recommended to sow the grass live stock. husbandry, to grow two dry crops in succession. It seeds after the barley has come up, and to cover I have been in the practice of keeping what are may follow clover; but if the soil is heavy, the ley them with a light harrow and the roller; and it is called the Dishley sheep, and have found them so should be ploughed in autumn. Barley is success said, and I think with truth, that this operation will tender in the lambing season, with all the care fully sown upon fallows in England, (not summer, not materially injure the grain. In dry seasons, could give them night and day, that I concluded they but autumn fallows,) and is sown sometimes after the crop is sometimes attacked by worms, while were not the sheep for me; although I very much wheat, but in the latter case turnips are pulled and young. In this case the roller should be applied, wished to retain their fine forms, if it were possible previously fed upon the stubble-a practice which and sufficient weight added, to require the draught to improve their constitution, which would require I think is not likely to obtain here. I have gener- of two or three cattle. an age, attended with loss, because they have been ally sown barley after ruta baga or potatoes, these Time and method of harvesting. When the soil rendered tender by the nice nursing they have had crops having received a good dressing of long yard is rich, and the season propitious, this grain is very for years. liable to lodge. If this happens after it has blos- In looking round, I found that my friend John Manure should not be applied to the barley, but somed, no material injury is sustained in the pro-Hare Powel had imported some Southdowns, which to the preceding crop. The short period that this duct. If before, the crop is greatly diminished. (as the saying is,) filled my eye full; and I at once grain occupies the ground, does not afford time for This shows the danger to be apprehended from concluded, that if they proved to be hardy and of the manure to decompose and yield its food to the making the soil too rich, and of applying fresh ma- good constitution, our farmers could not be better plants; and if applied in excess, it causes a too rank nure. Barley is known to be ripe by the disap-suited. vegetation, and the straw lodges before the grain pearance of the reddish cast on the ear, or what Last fall my friend J. H. Powel was so very obligis matured. Where a fallow or clover ley is em the English farmers term red roan, by the ears being as to lend one of his fine imported Southdown ployed, and ploughed in autumn, dung may be pre-ginning to droop and bend themselves round against rams, to tup a few ewes that I had; also giving me viously applied and ploughed under. the stems, and by the stalks becoming brittle and the privilege of permitting some of my neighbours Preparation of the ground. Where barley fol- of a yellowish colour. This is the particular period to put some of their ewes to him, on paying me lows a root or hoed crop, one ploughing will gen- for cutting, as if suffered to stand longer, the heads something for my time. The ram was very much erally suffice: but in all cases a complete pulveriza- break off, and the grain wastes, with the slightest admired, and there were a number of my neightion of the soil is necessary; and to effect this a touch. And it may be cut with the cradle, sickle bours embraced the opportunity At this time the roller is often of material benefit. If sown upon or scythe, according to circumstances. If it stands lambs are dropping, and I am told by several that grass leys, ploughed in autumn, the spring plough-straight, and is not too heavy, the cradle is to be they never had stronger or better lambs. The faring should be shallow, so as to leave the sod re- preferred; if heavy, or lodged, the sickle or scythe. mers supposed that he would weigh at least two versed. But the preferable way may be to harrow But, as the grain is yet soft, and the straw contains hundred pounds, although but in common condithe fallow, plough in the seed, with a light furrow, much moisture when it ought to be cut, it should and smooth off with the harrow. be suffered to become well dried in the swathe be

or stable manure.

tion.

The Southdowns have fine forms, clean heads The seed and sowing. Loudon enumerates six fore it is bound in sheaves, or carried to the barn and necks, wide breast, fine shoulder, round body, species and sub-species of the barley. The kinds or stack. If cut with the cradle or sickle, it is good loin, straight back, full thigh, and good twist; uniformly cultivated here are the two, four and six bound in sheaves; but the more common practice their wool about equal to ths Merino, and has a rowed spring, (hordeum vulgare, and h. distichon.) is to cut the crop with the scythe, rake the ground, little the appearance of Merino on their back; their Thin skinned, pale, plump seed, should be selected. and load it with the barley fork. legs and faces uniformly of a very dark colour; their I sow as soon as the ground is sufficiently dry in Barley improves for malting by lying till Octo-bellies covered with wool. They are very easy to spring. The young grain is not hurt by the erdi. ber before it is threshed; though it is often thresh- keep in good order, their neck and breast clear of nary frosts of the latter part of April and May. I ed immediately from the field. The great difficulty any dewlap or loose skin; and in my opinion are sow from six to eight pecks per acre, according to in preparing it for market is to rid it of the awns. completely calculated for those who wish to obtain the richness of the soil and the forwardness of the This may be done with flails after it has pass-a fine fleece and a first rate carcass for the market. season: the poorest ground and the latest sowing ed once through the fanning mill. And where With much respect, thy friend, requiring the most seed. In England the common it is in great quantities, it may be spread from four To J. S. SKINNER. JOSEPH KERSEY. quantity of seed is from eight to sixteen pecks- to six inches upon the barn floor, and trodden with Our climate being much warmer than that of Great Britain, barley and other grains tiller better with Produce and profits. The average product in us, and consequently we require less seed. We England is stated by Donaldson at thirty-two bushuniformly sow broadcast, generally on the fresh els per acre. The product in New York varies ESTEEMED FRIEND, furrow, and harrow in both ways; and those who from fifteen to seventy bushels, according to season

horses.

SHEEP.
Westchester, Sd mo., 3d, 1827.

Observing in thy paper of the 16th, No. 48, vol. have a roller, use it in the finishing operation. It and soil; and I think the average is somewhat short viii., some inquiries respecting sheep, by a plain fargives a smooth surface, breaks down the lumps, of that of Great Britain. Compared with wheat, mer, I was willing to give him what little informabrings the earth in contact with the seed, and if its product is as two or two and a half to one; com- tion I could on the subject. My father owned a grass seeds have been sown, its use is doubly bene-pared with oats, about equal, provided the soil is farm of 113 acres of limestone land; during the ficial. I steep my seed twenty-four hours in a weak adapted to this grain. It is, however, to be re-war we caught the sheep fever that became so presolution of nitre, the crude kind of which costs me membered, that neither wheat nor oats are adapted valent in this state; changed our plan of feeding only eight cents per pound, by the quantity. From to a barley soil; the first requiring a more stiff and cattle to that of keeping sheep. We purchased one the analysis and observations of Grisenthwaite, tenacious, and the latter a more cold and moist lo-hundred and twenty common ewes, for which we there is reason to believe that this salt is peculiarly cation. The average price of barley is at least two paid an average of two dollars and fifty cents per beneficial to the barley crop, the grain yielding it thirds that of wheat. Supposing wheat then to be head; and two young full bred Merino rams, at thiron analysis. I have made no comparative experi$1.12 the bushel, and the product 15 bushels per ty dollars each. This was done in the fall of the ments, but I think this steep serviceable. I have acre, and barley to be 75 cents, and the product of year. applied to this grain, as a top dressing, with singu- an acre 30 bushels, and the expense of cultivation lar success, the powdered dung of pigeons and equal, the profits of the barley will be nearly as three dunghill fowls, at the rate of twenty to thirty bush-to two compared to wheat. Barley, besides, is a less precarious crop, is subject to fewer diseases, and has fewer insect enemies to encounter than wheat. J. BUEL. Albany, March 8, 1827.

els the acre.

The crop admits of no after culture when sown broadcast. Yet the application of the roller, when the plants are two or three inches high, is no doubt

There was eighty-four acres of cleared land, including orchard, garden and other conveniences; it was divided into ten acre lots, as near as seemed to suit the fencing. Our practice was to plant one of those lots with Indian corn, sow one with oats and barley, and another in wheat and rye, in rotation, as here mentioned, first ploughing up the sod for

Indian corn; the next season sowed oats, and in the
fall season, when the ground was cleared, put all
the manure on it that we could scrape together;
sowed it with wheat, made it smooth, and then
sowed timothy seed; and early in the spring sowed
clover seed.
Thus we had about thirty acres of pasture land
to keep the stock until after harvest, and twenty
acres to mow, which averaged about a ton and an
half to the acre.

In addition to this stock we had five working horses, five milch cows and ten hogs.

We gave the sheep hay principally through the winter, excepting when I covered their yard with wheat or oat straw, which kept them well for a day and an half. I littered them whenever their yard became damp, so as to promote health and keep their wool clean. I gave them once a day about half a gill of oats or corn, or oats and corn mixed, until two weeks before the lambs began to drop; then I increased it gradually, until it had arrived at three times that quantity. I managed so the first year that the lambs began to come about the 20th of February, which that year proved too early, as we had very cold weather after that time, and several of them were frozen to death, although their shed was good. At this time the greatest care was necessary, requiring attention night and day. I raised about one hundred and ten lambs, and as soon as they began to eat, I prepared an apartment, so that they could pass through, leaving the ewes behind, where I fed them with corn meal and oats; which was of great service to them; and at any time when the weather was suitable, all that were able to travel, young and old, were taken to the field intended that spring for corn, and brought in, in the evening.

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mode of cultivating them, is very much behind that estimate of its real value: it may be a very profitaof the other branches of practical agriculture. ble plant for permanent pasture, though not for the "Rye grass (Lolium perenne,) was, till lately, the alternate husbandry; and it may be more valuable only species employed for making artificial pastures: for hay than for permanent pasture. For instance, it was indebted, most probably, for this distinction, the meadow fox-tail (Alopecurus pratensis,) is an to its property of ripening an abundance of good early, productive, and nutritive grass, but requires seed, and its ready growth in most kinds of soil. a longer period to arrive at perfection from seed "The first mention," says Mr. Sinclair, "that I than two years: it is, therefore, comparatively, unfit find made of ray-grass in early books on husbandry, for the alternate husbandry, though highly valuable is in The Mystery of Husbandry, Discovered and for permanent pasture. The meadow cat's-tail Laid Open, by J. Worlidge, 1681. There is no (Phleum pratense,) is remarkable for its weighty account of any other species of perennial grass produce of culms, which are more nutritive than being cultivated, till about forty years since, when those of any other grass, but the after-math is very meadow cat's-tail* (Phleum pratense,) was partially inconsiderable; it is, in consequence, a most valuarecommended for cultivation; and lately the culture ble grass for hay, but requires to be combined with of cock's-foot,† (Dactylis glomerata,) has been con- other species of grass, whose produce consists prinsiderably extended, so as to supersede the use of cipally of latter-math, to render its culture so prorye-grass in some districts, through the successful fitable, as it doubtless is, for hay. Cock's foot practice and recommendation of Mr. Coke, of Nor- (Dactylis glomerata,) arrives soon at perfection; it folk." is early, and abundantly productive of nutritive fo"Grass," says Professor Martyn, "vulgarly forms liage throughout the season; its culms, or stalks, one single idea; and a husbandman, when he is however, are but little nutritive: it is, therefore, looking over his enclosure, does not dream that most profitable for the alternate husbandry, or perthere are upwards of three hundred species of grass, manent pasture, where culms are less necessary. of which thirty or forty may be at present under Under these different relations, therefore, a grass his eye. They have scarcely had a name, besides should be considered, before it be absolutely rethe general one, till within these twenty years; and jected, or indiscriminately recommended. But althe few particular names that have been given them lowing that the different grasses were easily distinare far from having obtained general use; so that guished from each other with certainty, and that we may fairly assert, that the knowledge of this farmers were in possession of the respective seeds, most common and useful tribe of plants is yet in yet the length of time it would require to prove the its infancy." Botanists have ascertained, that relative value of any considerable number of them, there are 133 distinct species and varieties of grass, by the usual mode of making experiments for this natives of Great Britain: every one of these species purpose, with the heavy expense attending on differs, in a less or greater degree, from all others, failures, would discourage almost any individual in the qualities which alone render them of value to from an undertaking which, however beneficial the the farmer: comparatively speaking, some grasses results might ultimately prove to the community at are of no value to him, whilst others constitute the large, would be attended with a great and certain foundation of his riches, as they are the staff of expense for an uncertain return. life to the most valuable domestic animals. Now, though the numerous species and varieties of grasses differ so widely from each other in value, yet the similarity which pervades their whole structure is too great to afford any certain marks of distinction, without having recourse to particular rules, made from a consideration of those parts of their struc ture which are not subject to vary from culture or change of situation. The botanical or discriminating characters, of which these rules consist, are often minute. and sometimes perplexing even to professed botanists: to those, therefore, who have made botany no part of their study, the number and difference of value of all the species and varie ties of grass will appear comparatively small, and the necessity and importance of a particular selecJOSEPH KERSEY. tion proportionally little. The natural consequence resulting from this is the want of seed, which the NOTICES OF PERNICIOUS AND UNPROfarmer might select from the most valuable kinds, and employ the means of cultivating these, exclusive of the less valuable or useless.

That year we sheared better than six hundred pounds of wool, for which we obtained one dollar per pound in the rough. When the lambs were old enough to take from the ewes, we sold the ewes for three dollars per head, and had a fine stock of half bloods on hand, about one half ewes and the other wethers; so that our prospect for lambs the next year was not as great by one half.

In the course of this season the price of wool and sheep went down to nothing, so that we fed our half-bloods for the butcher and broke the whole plan up at once; which would not have been the case if our manufactures had been supported at that time. The lambs sold, at one year old, at two dollars per head.

If the above will be of any service to a plain farmer, or others, it is at their service. From thy friend,

To J. S. SKINNER.

FOR THE AMERICAN FARMER.

ON GRASSES AND OTHER PLANTS.
No. 1.

Extracts from G. Sinclair's Hortus Gramineus-with
occasional notes and observations, by a Correspon

dent.

The following extracts from George Sinclair's valuable work, entitled "HORTUS GRAMINEUS WoBURNENSIS; or an account of the Results of Experiments on the Produce and Nutritive qualities of different Grasses, and other Plants, used as the food of the more valuable Domestic Animals," (publish ed in 1825,) are submitted for the columns of the American Farmer--together with a few occasional remarks; under an impression that they will be interesting to many readers of that paper.

The works of Linnæus, Smith, Stillingfleet, Hudson, Curtis, Martyn, and many others, have been productive of much good, in calling the attention of agriculturists to a more particular examination of the comparative merits of the different grasses, and in affording the means of distinguishing the different species and varieties with more certainty.

"The valuable labours of the agricultural societies of Great Britain, of the Board of Agriculture of Stuttgart, and the patriotic exertions of eminent individuals in the same cause, have raised a spirit of inquiry, which cannot fail to produce the most beneficial effects in this important branch of practical agriculture." (To be continued.)

FITABLE PLANTS,

Which infest the Farms in Chester county, Penn.
(Continued from page 412, vol. viii.)
No. 4.
HEXANDRIA.-MONOGYNIA.

garlic.
Allium vineale. Common, or field garlic. Crow

"Grasses have been recommended by persons who had formed their judgment of their merits on imperfect trials--which has caused disappointment, and discouraged many from farther endeavours at improvement. Conclusions that are drawn from the results of single or minute experiments, with- This foreigner is extensively naturalized, and out accurately ascertaining the nature or qualities very obnoxious to the farmer; notwithstanding, it of the soils upon which they are made, will be affords an early, and perhaps a salutary pasture for found often fallacious, and, even in the latter in-stock, in the spring. Where it is abundant, it not stance, can only stand for single facts, which may only spoils the taste of milk, butter and cheese, but lead to other trials, but cannot furnish sufficient grounds for a general recommendation. Nor should a grass be too hastily rejected; the results of one trial only will be found insufficient to form a true

* Called Timothy in the United States.
Better known, in this country, by the name of Orch-

"Distinguished agriculturists and farmers agree
in opinion, that the knowledge of the comparative ard Grass.
merits and value of all the different species and va- Martyn's Letters on the Elements of Botany. Let-
vieties of grasscs, and, consequently, of the best ter xiii.

when mixed with wheat, injures the quality of the flour, and renders the manufacture of it difficult. Our best farmers, however, have got the plant in pretty good subjection, by the improvement of their land, and a judicious practice of the alternate husbandry.

Ornithogalum umbellatum. Ten o'clock. Star of Bethlehem.

This is a vile intruder upon our farms, in many places; having been brought from Europe to our

(From the Petersburg Intelligencer, March 16.)
COTTON TRADE.

our country, from which we abstract the following.

SUPPLY AND CONSUMPTION.

The import of Cotton into Great Britain,
in 1826, was,

gardens, and permitted to escape from thence to
the fields, through negligence, or an ignorance of
its character. Its roots are wonderfully tenacious
of life, and propagate by lateral bulbs with great with the perusal of a circular received by the last
We have been favoured by a commercial friend,
rapidity. Where it once gets possession, it seems
to monopolize the soil completely, in the early part information relative to the most important staple of
packet from Liverpool, containing much valuable
of the season-though after the leaves die, a crop
of grass, or grain, will succeed it, and do better
than could have been expected. Salt has been
sown on it, while the leaves were green, to induce
cattle to eat it; but they are not fond of it. Some
farmers have ploughed up the bulbs in autumn, and
turned sheep on, to eat them during the winter:
but all these attempts to get rid of the plant have
hitherto failed. Trench ploughing, it is understood,
has been proposed by Judge Peters; but whether it
has been tried, or found to be an eligible practice,
I am not informed. An effectual and practicable
mode of extirpating this pest, would constitute a
most acceptable article of information to many
farmers.

Juncus effusus. Common rush. Soft rush.

This occurs chiefly in low, moist grounds, forming tufts, or tussocks, as they are termed; and as it is a plant of no value, it becomes a nuisance, which neat farmers are careful to abate, by cutting out the tufts. Ploughing and cropping are an effectual remedy, where the ground will permit.

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Veratrum viride. Hellebore. Indian poke. An unprofitable plant, and frequent in low, wet meadows; but there is no difficulty in subduing it. Rumex crispus. Sour dock. Curled dock. This is an unsightly and troublesome plant, in our meadows and cultivated fields, in which it has been introduced from Europe. It requires consi derable perseverance to keep it in subjection; and unless it be so kept, it gives to a farm a very slovenThe radicle leaves are cooked for ly appearance. "greens," in the spring of the year. Rumex obtusifolius. Bitter dock. Broad-leaved dock.

Another troublesome and obnoxious foreign weed; but it does not appear to propagate, or spread so rapidly, as the sour dock. It is to be got rid of in the same manner--i. e. by carefully eradicating the plants before the seeds are perfected.

Rumex acetosella. Sheep sorrel. Field sorrel. This, also, is believed to be a foreigner; and al though a small plant, it is frequently in such abundance as to be a nuisance. Its presence is gene rally considered as evidence of an excess of acid in the soil; and the application of alkaline earths, particularly lime, has been found to be a good remedy.

OCTANDRIA.MONOGYNIA.

Enothera. Evening Tree Primrose. Night Willow-herb. Sun-drops.

Two or three species of this genus are frequent in our fields, and are altogether worthless to the farmer. They have not, however, attracted any particular attention.

OCTANDRIA-TRIGYNIA.

Polygonum aviculare. Knot-grass.

P. punctatum Water pepper. Arse-smart. P. Pennsylvanicum. Pennsylvania knot-weed. These three species of polygonum are all, more or less troublesome, as weeds, in gardens, lots, &c. and require attention to keep them in subjection. The P. punctatum is more common in moist situa tions, and is a highly acrid plant. Polygonum sagittatum. P. arifolium.

These two species are known by the name of Tear thumb, and abound in swampy meadows, along ditches, &c. They are worthless and trou blesome, and are to be got rid of by draining and culture. (To be continued.)

Stock on hand 31st December, 1825,

Makes the supply in 1826, Deduct stock on hand, 31st Dec. 1326,

Do. export in 1826,

342,209
102,688

Taken from the ports for home consump-
tion, in 1826,

Average consumption per week in 1826,
Do.
do. do.

Bales. 580,381 415,959

996,340

444,879
551,443

10,605

do.

1825,

10,912

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do. do.

1824,

12,181

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7,296
6,260

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HORTICULTURE.

IMPORTED TREES AND PLANTS. Linnæan Botanic Garden, near New York, March 12, 1827. Mr. Skinner-Seeing a communication in your last number (which appears to be from the Agricultural Society of South Carolina,) relative to obtaining the Teak wood, celebrated pines, and other trees from New South Wales, I have to remark,' that I expect, within one month, to receive the teak wood; and have already in my collection, one species of pine, more than a dozen species of the Banksea, two of Eucalyptus, and above a hundred other species of trees and shrubs natives of New South Wales, all of which will be announced in my Catalogue of Green-house Plants, now in the press, and of which a number of copies shall be forwarded to you in two weeks time, for gratuitous distribution. Yours most respectfully, WILLIAM PRINCE.

LADIES' DEPARTMENT.

A HINT TO MOTHERS.

All young animals naturally delight to be in the 7,593 open air, and in perpetual motion; but we signify our disapprobation of this intention of nature by confining our infants mostly in houses, and swathing them, when born, as tightly as possible. This natural instinct appears very strong, when we see a child released from its confinement, in the short interval betwixt pulling off its day clothes. and swathing it again before it is put to sleep. The evident tokens of delight which the little creature shows in recovering the free use of its limbs, and the strong reluctance it discovers to be again remitted to its bondage, one should think, would strike conviction of the cruelty and absurdity of this practice into the most stupid of mankind. [Dr. Gregory.

American. Brazil.

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303,984

177.677

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300.719

121,100

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Remaining in the ports at the close of each of the last female deportment most correct, there is most

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do. The decrease from Brazil, in a great degree, arises from the deficiency of the crop of 1825; and City ladies boast of being more delicate, than the low price in Europe has, no doubt, been the country maidens. The one breathes an air polluted cause of a part of that crop remaining in the coun- with many thousand breaths; the other inhales a try. The growth of 1826 is represented to be a breeze freshened over the new mown hay. The very abundant one, and of good quality, and a large one drinks water from the sewer-mingling pump, supply may be expected from thence this year. or through impure pipes from the open horse pond; The falling off in the import from Egypt, we be the other pours it from the moss-covered bucket, or lieve, is not from any inability to furnish greater dips it from the pure spring. The one walks over supplies; but because the inadequate price offers the hard pavements, along the dusty pile of bricks, no encouragement; and it is believed the Pacha the other trips over the soft grass along the graceholds a considerable stock of both old and new cotful rows of trees. The one is pale and sickly from ton, ready for shipment whenever the markets of watching at the evening concert; the other is ruddy Europe offer an inducement. It is not expected and healthy, from rising with the morning birds that the import from the East Indies will be as The one is the lily of the green house; the other large as the past year. The import from Demarara is the rose beside the stone wall. In the city is seen and the West India Islands, the last year, was and admired the ingenious handy-work of man; in smaller than for many years past, and an increase the country are traced and hallowed the stately from thence may be expected. steppings of the Almighty.

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