Sometimes the combination of the extremes gives us one metaphor, and the combination of the means another; thus, we talk of the spring of life,' and of the youth of the year.'

(vi) Synecdoche, whereby we use part for the whole, and vice versâ; as,

'Ten sail appeared off our port.'

Here sail is used for ships.

(vii) Metonomy is the use of cause for effect, or vice versâ; or the symbol for the thing signified; as,

'Flee the bottle,' i. e. ' the contents thereof.'

(viii) Hyperbole is exaggeration; as,

'They built a tower to reach up to heaven!' i.e. 'very high.'

(ix) Meiosis is lessening or weakening the force of an expres

sion; as,

'George is not very industrious,' i. e. ' he is very idle.'

(x) Antithesis compares things contrary or different; as,
'Though deep, yet clear.'

8. Besides these, Latham gives two more, which he calls convertibility and zeugma.

1. Convertibility is the use of one part of speech for another, and is either,

(a) Etymological, or permanent; as, seldom, now always an adverb, formerly an old dative.

(b) Syntactical, or temporary; as, the use of the infinitive for the noun.

2. Zeugma, whereby a verb, &c., applicable to only one clause, does duty for two; as,

'They wear a garment like the Scythians, but a language peculiar to themselves.'-Sir J. Mandeville.

If this were tolerated, much bad grammar would find shelter under Zeugma !

CHAPTER VII.

CRITICISMS AND CAUTIONS.

§ 1. Usage.

THE subject-matter of the following chapter is chiefly based on Dr.
Crombie's English Etymology and Syntax, and on the works of Dr.
Angus, of Mr. Washington Moon, and of Archbishop Trench. Re-
ferences made to these authors are characterised by the letters
Cr., A., M., Tr.

1. LANGUAGE is antecedent to Grammar. Law and general principles are necessary before rules can be deduced from them. To deduce these rules is the province of the grammarian, and the law of a language to which he must make his appeal is usage.

2. The usage which gives law to a language, and which is generally denominated good usage, must be reputable, national, and present.

3. The following CANONS are laid down to guide us in retaining or preferring certain words or phrases:

:

CANON I. When the usage is divided as to any particular
words or phrases, and when one of the expressions is
susceptible of a different meaning, while the other ad-
mits only one signification, the expression which is
strictly univocal should be preferred.

EXAMPLES.-Aught for anything' is preferable to ought.
Scarcely, as an adverb, is better than scarce.

CANON II. In doubtful cases, analogy should be regarded.

EXAMPLE.-Contemporary is better than cotemporary.

CANON III. When expressions are in other respects equal, that should be preferred which is most agreeable to the ear.

CANON IV. When none of the preceding rules takes place, regard should be had to simplicity; thus, to accept,

approve, admit, are preferable to accept of, approve of, admit of.

4. The following Canons regulate the decisions of grammar with reference to the rejection of phraseology which may be deemed objectionable :

CANON I. All words and phrases particularly harsh, and not

absolutely necessary, should be dismissed; as, shamefacedness, unsuccessfulness, wrongheadedness.

CANON II. When the etymology plainly points to a different signification from what the word bears, propriety and simplicity require its dismissal. For example, the word. beholden taken for obliged, and unloose for untie, should be rejected.

CANON III. When words become obsolete, or are never used but in particular phrases, they should be repudiated, as they give the style the air of vulgarity and cant, and their general disuse renders them obscure.

EXAMPLE. By dint of argument; I had as lief go; a moot point, &c.

CANON IV. All words and phrases which, analysed gramma

tically, include a solecism, should be dismissed; as, I had rather go; which should be, I would rather go. CANON V. All expressions which, according to the established rules of the language, either have no meaning, or involve a contradiction, or according to the fair construction of the words convey a meaning different from the intention of the speaker, should be dismissed; such as, he sings a good song, i. e. he sings well.

5. These Canons, taken from Campbell on Rhetoric, Dr. Crombie has fully explained in his excellent work.

§ 2. Grammatical Purity.

1. To write any language with grammatical purity implies three

things:

1. That the words be all of that language.

2. That they be construed and arranged according to the
rules of syntax in that language.

3. That they be employed in that sense which usage
nexed to them.

has an

2. Grammatical purity may therefore be violated in three

1. The words may not be English.
BARBARISM.

ways: This error is called a

2. Their construction may be contrary to English idiom. This error is called a SOLECISM.

3. They may be used in a sense different to their established acceptation. This error is termed an IMPROPRIETY. -Crombie, Etym. Syntax.

3. If we analyse grammatical errors more minutely, we find that they arise from the following causes :—

(i) Faulty definition-misconception of the meaning of words.

(ii) Faulty classification—confusing words belonging to different parts of speech.

(iii) Faulty ellipsis.

(iv) Redundancy.

(v) Faulty concord and government.

(vi) Faulty arrangement or collocation of words.

4. Of these errors the principal illustrations occur in

(i) Mistaking the adverb for the adjective.

(ii) Misgovernment and false concord of pronouns; especially (iii) The false concord of relative and antecedent.

(iv) The ellipsis of the article.

(v) The erroneous collocation of words; especially misplacing the adverb, and violating the arrangement of correlatives in the corresponding clauses of a sentence.

5. We now proceed to give a list of general rules and cautions bearing upon these points; a selection of such words in common use as are liable to misconception; a list of words and phrases alphabetically arranged, which suggest criticism or require explanation.

§ 3.

CAUTIONS, CRITICAL REMARKS, ETC.

1. Adverb.

1. ADVERBS are often made adjectives or nouns, though not elegantly; as,

'The then ministry.'

'Very God of very God.'

'It is a long while ago.'-A.

2. Adverbs in 'ly' from adjectives in 'ly should be avoided; as,

'That we may godly serve Thee.'

3. When adverbs are found in the same clause with several words, they must be closely connected with the words to which they belong. They are generally placed before adjectives, after verbs, and between the auxiliary and the participle.

4. Such adverbs as totally, supremely, absolutely, universally, &c., are not to be qualified by so, more, most, or by any word implying comparison.-M.

5. When the verb is intransitive, the adjective must be used; as, 'She looks cold.' When the verb is transitive, the adverb is to be used; as, 'She looks coldly on him.'

6. The verb To Be, in all its moods and tenses, generally requires the word immediately connected with it to be an adjective, and not an adverb; and consequently, when this verb can be substituted for any other without varying the sense or construction, that other verb must be connected with an adjective; as, 'The rose smells sweet,' not sweetly; for, if we substitute is for smells, we have 'The rose is sweet.'

7. The misuse of the adverb for the adjective is a common blunder; as,