heads, and travel is possible only by stepping from one bunch to another-a most exhausting method, owing to irregular distances between the niggerheads and the uncertain footing afforded by them.

While glaciers and volcanoes, fiords and tundra are impressive features, there are others of equal or superior importance. Alaska contains extraordinary material related to the past history of the earth, evidences equal in variety and extent to those of any other limited area. Among subjects affording unlimited fields for scientific research, and of material value, are mineral deposits, forestal products, prehistoric fossils, and the biological problems of its land and sea life.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.-Baker: Geographic Dictionary of Alaska; Bulletin No. 299, United States Geological Survey, 1906. Brooks: Geography of Alaska; Professional Paper 45, United States Geological Survey, 1906. Gannett: Geography of Alaska; Harriman Alaska Expedition, 1901. Dall: Alaska and Its Resources. Elliott: Our Arctic Province; Alaska and the Seal Islands.

CHAPTER II

GOVERNMENT AND LAWS

In the early years of Alaska's history as a part of the United States, it suffered from the utter neglect of Congress as regards law and government, so that there were grounds for the application to the Territory of Kipling's aphorism that

Never a law of God or man

Runs north of Fifty-three.

Article III of the treaty of cession, ratified by the United States May 28, 1867, contains the provision that

The inhabitants of the ceded territory . if they should prefer to remain in the ceded territory, they, with the exception of the uncivilized tribes, shall be admitted to the enjoyment of all the rights and immunities of citizens of the United States, and shall be maintained and protected in the free enjoyment of their liberty, property, and religion. The uncivilized tribes will be subject to such laws and regulations as the United States may from time to time adopt in regard to aboriginal tribes of that country.

For seventeen years Congress took no action regarding Alaska save to protect financial interests, which it did July 27, 1868, by extending to it laws relative to customs, revenue, and navigation, and their enforcement by the courts of California, Oregon, and Washington. In 1869 it established the

Seal Islands as a reservation and authorized their lease the year following. Then for fourteen consecutive years Alaskan legislation was totally neglected. The President took action by sending the army in 1867 to protect Alaska (see Chapter IV), but after ten years of stormy experiences it was entirely withdrawn and Alaska was left to its fate.

Murder, rapine, and lawlessness followed, and the citizens of Sitka in one extremity appealed for aid to British Columbia, and for a time were protected by the British navy. Later the Revenue Marine Service and the United States navy alternately assumed control of local affairs.

Of conditions in Alaska from 1867 to 1897 a most competent authority, W. H. Dall, writes:

A country where no man could make a legal will, own a homestead or transfer it, or so much as cut wood for his fire without defying a Congressional prohibition; where polygamy and slavery and the lynching of witches prevailed, with no legal authority to stay or punish criminals; such in great part has Alaska been for thirty years. He properly adds:

It will be a perpetual testimony to the character of the early American settlers in Alaska, that under the circumstances they bore themselves so well.

This tribute to Alaskans confirms statements often made by the writer, based on his frequent visits to and long experiences with Alaska, that as a whole its inhabitants are the most law-abiding body of men that he has ever known.

Congress on May 17, 1884, extended the laws of Oregon to Alaska, and provided an inadequate Territorial government, as to governor, courts, schools, etc. Where moral obligations were ignored, the discovery of gold prevailed. March 5, 1899, Congress enacted criminal and penal codes, drawn from Oregon statutes. The Act of June 6, 1900, enlarged the powers of the local officials and courts as to education, insane, lands, mines, missions, licenses and taxes. March 3, 1903, homestead entries were granted, and May 7, 1906, Alaska was recognized as a Territory and a delegate to Congress authorized.

A measure of local government was granted by the Act of August 24, 1912. It authorized a legislative assembly of eight senators, with terms of four years, and sixteen representatives with terms of two years. Elected in equal numbers from the four judicial districts, their eligibility required local residence and two years' record as electors. The governor, appointed by the President, has veto power. The legislature, meeting biennially, in the odd years, has restricted powers, and the duration of its sessions is limited. All laws enacted are submitted to the Congress of the United States, and if disapproved become void.

The main features of the Act of Congress are as follows:

The legislative power of the Territory shall extend to all rightful subjects of legislation not inconsistent with the Constitution and laws of the United States, but no law shall be passed interfering with the primary disposal of

the soil; no tax shall be imposed upon the property of the United States; nor shall the lands or other property of nonresidents be taxed higher than the lands or other property of residents. . . The legislature shall pass no law depriving the judges and officers of the district court of Alaska of any authority, jurisdiction, or function exer cised by like judges or officers of district courts of the United States.

Legislation is restricted on private charters, divorces, lotteries, gambling, sectarian or private schools, credit, indebtedness, county form of government; and Territorial taxes are limited in amount.

The district court of Alaska is divided into four divisions, each presided over by a judge appointed by the President for four years. Probate and justices' courts, presided over by commissioners, are located in convenient precincts. They have limited original jurisdiction in probate, insanity, minor civil and criminal matters. A novel institution is the socalled "floating court." The entire Territorial court, with jurymen and lawyers, embark on a revenue cutter, and travel from place to place along the Alaska Peninsula, Bristol Bay, and other remote settlements. Court sessions are held on the cutter or in local buildings. Convicted prisoners are carried to the nearest jails.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.-Department of the Interior: General Information regarding the Territory of Alaska, 1923.