permitted to return, but the son continued faithful to the Chinese cause, and opposed the enemies of his country. In the course of three or four years, however, the Tartars, by force or bribery, contrived to drive him from the coast to the numerous islands in the vicinity; and the large and fertile country of Formosa, now inhabited by numerous Chinese, became the object of his hopes. The Dutch were aware that the secret agents of Koshinga held a correspondence with the resident Chinese, and, foreseeing the danger, increased the garrison of Fort Zealand in 1650. They still remained unmolested for a time, until the exiled leader, being defeated before Nanking, had no refuge left for himself and his numerous followers except Formosa. On the application of Coyet, governor of the settlement, twelve ships were despatched from Batavia in 1660, with orders that, if the alarm at Formosa proved groundless, the fleet should proceed against Macao. The garrison now consisted of 1500 men, and the Dutch demanded of Koshinga whether he was for peace or war. In his reply, by letter, he affected the most friendly disposition towards the settlement, and, still farther to lull the Hollanders into security, sent several merchant vessels to Formosa. The governor's suspicions were not removed, as Koshinga still continued his preparations at Amoy ; but the majority of the council being of opinion that there was no present danger, all the ships were ordered away to their respective destinations. The admiral, on his return to Batavia, accused the governor of unreasonable apprehensions; and the council, wearied with the expense, and with what they considered as the groundless fears of the governor, suspended him from office, and ordered him to Batavia to defend himself. His successor, M. Clenk, sailed for Formosa in June, 1661.

Meanwhile, the events which were taking place on the island justified all the anticipations which had been thus contemned. Soon after the departure of the Dutch fleet from Fort Zealand, Koshinga and his forces were in motion: he embarked upwards of 20,000 of his best troops, and appeared before the settlement, where, assisted by thousands of his countrymen on shore, he soon began to land. Having occupied with his forces a

17

point which would cut off the communication between Fort Zealand and another on the opposite side of the entrance, the governor ordered out 240 men to dislodge him. About 4000 Chinese had already occupied the place, but so confident were the Dutch that the enemy would not stand the fire, that they immediately attacked them. The Chinese, instead of giving ground, returned the fire with musketry and arrows, and sent a detachment to attack them in the flanks. The soldiers, seeing this, were alarmed and fled, leaving the captain and nineteen men in the hands of the enemy; while only half their company reached the fort alive. The defence by sea was no better; for, though the four ships in port attacked the junks, and sunk some of them, one was burned by the Chinese fire-vessels, and another sailed away with the news for Batavia. The Chinese now landed without opposition, and cut off all communication between the forts, as well as with the open country; and Koshinga summoned Fort Zealand, threatening to put all to the sword unless they surrendered at once,

Deputies were now sent to the Chinese camp, which consisted of about 12,000 men, armed in three different ways: the first, with bows and arrows; the second, with only swords and shields; and the third, with back swords and pikes, three or four feet long, with broad pointed heads of iron. The deputies were introduced into the tent, where Koshinga sat in an elbow-chair, behind a square table, surrounded by "the chief commanders, clad in long robes, without arms, and in great silence, and with a most awful countenance." Koshinga replied, that "Formosa had always belonged to China; and now that the Chinese wanted it, the foreigners must quit the island immediately. If not, let them only hoist the red flag." On the following morning, the red flag was seen over Fort Zealand, but the other fort was surrendered, with its garrison and cannon. All the men able to fight were now taken within the citadel, and the town itself set on fire, in order to deprive the besiegers of shelter; but the Chinese saved many of the buildings, and brought up twentyeight pieces of cannon to bear against the fort. They were, however, so galled by the fire of the Dutch, that the streets were strewed with

C

the killed, and the besieged, making a sally, spiked their guns. Koshinga, finding all his attacks fruitless, began a close blockade, and turned his rage on the open country, making the Dutch residents, and especially the ministers, prisoners; one of these was sent to Fort Zealand, to propose terms of surrender, on the refusal of which, all the prisoners were to be put to death. This individual, by name Hambrocock, having left his wife and children with the enemy as hostages, like another Regulus exhorted the Dutch to a good defence, and returned to Koshinga with the governor's refusal. As might have been expected, both himself and all the other prisoners were put to death, including many of the women and children.

Only two days after the Council at Batavia had censured Coyet for his fears, and despatched his successor Clenk to Formosa, the ship, which had sailed away, arrived with the news of the attack on that place. They immediately revoked the censure, and fitted out ten ships, with 700 soldiers, for the island: but Clenk arrived first off Fort Zealand, where he saw the red flag flying, and hundreds of Chinese vessels lying in the north roads. He came to an anchor, and sent his despatches on shore; but, instead of landing himself, sailed away for Japan. The succours from Batavia soon afterwards arrived, and the besieged began to act on the offensive; but they were unsuccessful in the attempt to dislodge the enemy from the town. The garrison was now increased to the utmost; and the women and children, with the other useless persons, sent to Batavia. These preparations checked the approaches of Koshinga; but the inconceivable imprudence of the Dutch lost them their advantage. The Governor received letters from the Tartar Viceroy of Fokien (the opposite province), requesting his assistance in expelling the remains of Koshinga's forces from the coast, and promising his aid afterwards to the Dutch at Formosa. Five ships were accordingly sent away for this purpose; but three were lost in a storm, and the remainder returned to Batavia. The wish of Koshinga was complete. A deserter from the Dutch encouraged the besiegers, and showed

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them the weakest points. They now assailed the fort from three batteries, and succeeded in making a breach, which they soon prepared to assault. The Hollanders upon this began to deliberate, and the majority of the Council decided that the fort was untenable. cordingly, after a siege of nine months, with the loss of about 1600 men, Formosa was given up, and the Dutch returned to Java, in 1662. Koshinga now became independent sovereign of the island; but in 1683 it was surrendered by his grandson to the Manchow Tartar dynasty.

The

The intercourse of the Russians with China through Siberia not being of a maritime character, and confined altogether to the northern extremity of the empire, has differed altogether from that of other European nations, and we have not space to enter into the details of its history. One attempt was made by them in 1806 to communicate with Canton by sea in two ships under the command of Captain Krusenstern; but an edict was then issued forbidding to Russia any trade except by land, at the frontier station (established by mutual treaties) at Kiackta in Tartary. most celebrated early embassies, from Russia overland, were those of Isbrand Ides in 1693; and of Ismaloff, sent by Peter the Great in 1719, an account of whose mission is well given by Mr. Bell, of Antermony. The ambassador in both instances was treated with a degree of respect unusual at Peking, and demonstrative of the estimation in which the power of Russia was held there. Catherine I., in 1727, despatched Count Vladislavitch to China, as ambassador-extraordinary, and by him a treaty was concluded, by which the Russians were to have a church at Peking, with an establishment of priests; and four young Russians were to remain at the residence of the embassy, for the purpose of studying the language, and serving as interpreters between the two nations. The Russian mission now consists of six ecclesiastical and four lay members, who study the Manchow and Chinese languages. Their abode at Peking extends to a period of about ten years, at the end of which they are relieved by others from St. Petersburg.

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WE now proceed to give a sketch of the early intercourse between Great Britain and China, the first attempt to establish which seems to have been as far back as 1596, when three ships were fitted out in charge of Benjamin Wood, bearing letters from Queen Elizabeth to the Emperor; but the ships were lost on their way out, and no renewal of the project appears to have taken place. The oldest record of the Company at Canton is dated April 6th, 1637, and commences thus :-" In the latitude of 6 degrees, we took leave of the ship Planter, whom God, we hope, hath conducted in safety. Upon her was laden as per invoice appeareth," &c. This was one of a fleet of five ships, of which the remaining four, the Dragon, Sun, Catherine, and Ann, proceeded on their way to China, under the command of Captain Weddel. They first arrived at Acheen in Sumatra. "At our reaching this (it is said) we found no Christians in the whole town, but there were three Dutchmen. Their capital was small, as likewise their wit and manners, being fellows of former slender employment, and sent hither rather to oppose any of our nation that should arrive in outfacing, outvying, and outlying them, than for any real intent or desire of trade1." The fleet proceeded on its way to China, and arrived off Macao on the 28th of May. Here the Portuguese did all in their power to misrepresent them to the Chinese, and prevent the chance of a trade.

After

This rancour against the Dutch was the consequence of the mutual jealousies which existed between the rival traders of the two countries at that time in the East. A treaty concluded with Holland, called the treaty of defence, in 1615, had no effect ultimately in producing harmony; and the dreadful massacre of Amboyna, in 1623, at length became the crowning act of cruelty and perfidy on the part of the Hollanders.;

several fruitless attempts to establish a peaceful arrangement, and some vain endeavours to depute persons from the fleet to open a negotiation at Canton, it was resclved that all the ships should sail up the river. They arrived in a few days at the river's mouth, at present called the Bogue, in the neighbourhood of the forts; "and being now furnished with some slender interpreters, they soon had speech with divers mandarins in the king's jounkes, to whom the cause of their arrival was declared, viz., to entertain peace and amity with them, to traffic freely as the Portugalls did, and to be forthwith supplied, for their moneys, with provisions for their ships: all which those mandarins promised to solicit with the prime men resident at Canton; and in the mean time desired an expectation of six days, which were granted; and the English ships rode with white ensigns on the poop; but their perfidious friends the Portugalls had in all that time, since the return of the pinnace, so beslandered them to the Chinese, reporting them to be rogues, thieves, beggars, and what not, that they became very jealous of the good meaning of the English; insomuch that, in the night-time, they put forty-six of iron cast ordnance into the fort lying close to the brink of the river, each piece between six and seven hundred weight, and well proportioned; and after the end of four days, having, as they thought, sufficiently fortified themselves, they discharged divers shot, though without hurt, upon one of the barges passing by them to find a convenient watering-place. Herewith the whole fleet being instantly incensed, did, on the sudden, display their bloody ensigns; and, weighing their anchors, fell up with the flood, and berthed themselves before the castle, from whence came many shot, yet not any that

touched so much as hull or rope; whereupon, not being able to endure their bravadoes any longer, each ship began to play furiously upon them with their broadsides; and, after two or three hours, perceiving their cowardly fainting, the boats were landed with about one hundred men; which sight occasioned them, with great distractions, instantly to abandon the castle and fly; the boats' crews, in the mean time, without let entering the same, and displaying his Majesty's colours of Great Britain upon the walls, having the same night put aboard all their ordnance, fired the Council-house, and demolished what they could. The boats of the fleet also seized a jounke, laden with boards and timber, and another with salt. Another vessel of small moment was surprised, by whose boat a letter was sent to the chief mandarins at Canton, expostulating their breach of truce, excusing the assailing of the castle, and withal in fair terms requiring the liberty of trade. This letter it seems was delivered; for, the next day, a mandarin of no great note, some time a Portugal Christian, called Paulo Noretty, came towards the ships in a small boat with a white flag, to whom the English, having laid open the injuries received, and the sincere intent they had to establish fair trade and commerce, and were no way willing (but in their own defence) to oppose the China nation, presented certain gifts, and dismissed him to his masters, who were some of the chief mandarins, riding about a point of land not far from the ships, who, being by him duly informed thereof, returned him again the same night with a small jounke, and full authority to carry up such as should be appointed to Canton, there to tender a petition, and to conclude further upon the manner of

their future proceedings." The result was,

that the blame of the late skirmish was laid by the mandarins on the slanders of the Portuguese, and the captured guns being restored, the ships were supplied with cargoes.

No farther trade, however, ensued for many years. Soon after this period the interior of China was distracted by the contests between the Manchow Tartars and Chinese, while the coasts were overrun by large fleets of pirates, under the leaders whom we have already had occasion to notice. Another attempt was

made by the English in 1664 to establish a commercial intercourse with Canton. The company's agents landed at Macao, and obtained a lodging there, with the view of prosecuting a negotiation with the Chinese : these, however, demanded 2,000 taëls on each ship as a port charge, and when 1,000 were offered, they rejected the proposal. At length a guard of Chinese was placed over the English, and they were obliged to abandon the attempt and return to Bantam; there being every reason to suppose that the Portuguese, as usual, were instrumental to their failure. In 1668 peace with the Dutch encouraged the company to look towards China, and accordingly application was made to Sir Robert Southwell, ambassador in Portugal, to obtain good treatment for our ships, should they be obliged to touch at Goa or Macao. In the same year the company's servants at Bantam observed, in a despatch to the court, "Hockchue will be a place of great resort, affording all China commodities, as tutanag, silk, raw and wrought, gold, China root, tea, &c., for which must be carried broad-cloth, lead, amber, pepper, coral, sandal-wood, red-wood, incense, cacha (cassia), putchuk, &c." These, all of them, form articles of trade at present with either England or India.

The records then show that, in 1670, a trade was established at Taywan, or Formosa, with the chief Koshinga, who, as we have before seen, had expelled the Dutch from that island in 1662. It is possible that, knowing the rivalry and animosity which existed between the Dutch and English, he encouraged the latter to come, as a counterpoise in his own favour, should the Dutch attempt to repossess themselves of Formosa. A treaty was entered into, called "The contract made with the King of Taywan for the settling of a factory," in which the company stipulate "that we may sell or truck our goods with whom we please, and likewise all persons may have the same free trade with us; that, for all injuries or wrongs that shall be done us by the people here, the king shall right us; and, on the other hand, that what injuries or wrongs the English shall do, application being

The provincial pronunciation for Fokchow Foo (which possesses great advantages for European trade) in Fokieu province.

made to the chief, satisfaction shall be made them; that upon all occasions we may have access to the king's person; that we may have the choosing of our own interpreters and escrivans, and no soldiers to be put upon us, and also to be free to walk without Chinamen along with us; that what goods the king buys shall pay no custom; that rice imported pay no custom; that all goods imported pay three per cent. after sale, and all goods exported be custom free." It was provided, however, that all ships should deliver up their guns and ammunition while in port. It seems that this trade at length proved so unprofitable and vexatious, that the Company, in 1681, ordered their establishments at Formosa and Amoy to be withdrawn, and a trade, if possible, established at Canton and Hockchue, or Fokchow. In 1683 Formosa, as already noticed, was surrendered to the Tartars, and in a curious despatch to the Company, dated the 20th December in that year, it is observed, that, "the inhabitants were ordered, in the name of the Great Cham of Tartary, to shave all their hairs off, save enough to make a monkey's tail, pendent from the very noddle of their heads, and betake themselves to his country's habit." The Tartars, from the very first conquest of China, have shown a great disinclination to foreign trade, which may have arisen partly from their having a less esteem for it than the native rulers of the country, and partly from a fear of some collusion taking place between Europeans and their Chinese subjects. It is, in fact, since the Tartar conquest that the English have been excluded from Ningpo and Amoy, having traded at the latter place while it remained independent of the Manchows, and some time after the rest of China had submitted to them.

The ship Delight was sent in 1685 to attempt the re-establishment of a trade at Amoy ; and, about the same time, active exertions were made by the Company towards securing a regular commerce at Canton. In the progress of all these trials one of the most striking circumstances is the stupid pertinacity with which the Portuguese of Macao excluded English ships from that port; and the perfidy with which they misrepresented their supposed rivals to the Chinese, with a view to prevent

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their getting a footing at Canton. In the course of time they have been unable to exclude us altogether even from Macao: but their systematic policy has been to attribute motives to the English which should injure them with the provincial government; and this was strikingly exemplified during the expedition under Admiral Drury, in 1808.

Soon after the Tartar conquest we find it stated by the mandarins, in reply to certain inquiries on the subject, that "a present to the Emperor of strange fowls and beasts would be more acceptable than a ship's lading of gold." There can be no doubt that gifts of this kind are extremely well suited to Peking; and, on the occasion of any future mission it would be well to keep the advice in view, instead of confining the selection of presents entirely to works of art; as they were, in our past embassies, most of them unintelligible and useless to the Emperor and his court. The troubles of the trade at Canton appear to have commenced very early. The Hoppo, or chief commissioner of customs, in 1689 demanded 2,484 taels for the measurage (or port charge) of the ship Defence, but, on finding that it would not be paid, he took 1,500 taëls. In the mean while, one of the crew of the Defence had killed a Chinese, and a tumult ensued, in which several of the seamen and the surgeon of the ship lost their lives. Not satisfied with this, the mandarins declared that, unless 5,000 taëls were paid, the Defence would not be allowed to sail; but, when they had refused 2,000, the captain quitted Canton, and took his vessel out of the river. The present charges on a ship of about 800 tons in the port of Whampoa are very little short of 5,000 dollars, or above £1,000.

It appears from a letter of the Court of Directors to the factory in China, dated 23rd November, 1699, that a Consul's commission was sent out to the chief of the Company's council; nor does any notice appear on the records of this having been subsequently recalled. They say, we have obtained a commission from his Majesty to constitute you, and those who shall be hereafter appointed by us, as our President in China, to be the King's Minister or Consul for the English nation, with all powers requisite thereunto." The Court of Directors appear to have been unaware of