therefore with Cato, as fome writers affect to do; it is certain, that if Cato's virtue feems more splendid in theory, Cicero's will be found fuperior in practice; the one was romantic, the other rational; the one drawn from the refinements of the schools, the other from nature and focial life; the one always unfuccefsful, often hurtful; the other always beneficial, often salutary to the republic.

To conclude; Cicero's death, though violent, cannot be called untimely: but was the proper end of fuch a life, which must have been rendered less glorious, if it had owed its preservation to Antony. It was therefore what he not only expected, but in the circumstances to which he was reduced, what he seems even to have wished. For he, who had before been timid in dangers and desponding in distress, yet from the time of Cæfar's death, roused by the defperate state of the republic, affamed the fortitude of a hero: discarded all fear; defpised all danger; and when he could not free his country from a tyranny, provoked the tyrants to take that life, which he no longer cared to preferve. Thus, like a great actor on the stage, he referved himself as it were, for the last act; and after he had played his part with dignity, refolved to finish it with glory. Middleton's Cicero.

§ 39. The Character of MARTIN LUTHER. While appearances of danger daily increafed, and the tempeft which had been so long a-gathering was ready to break forth in all its violence against the protestant church, Luther was saved by a season able death from feeling or beholding its destructive rage. Having gone, though in a declining state of health, and during a rigorous feafon, to his native city of Eifleben, in order to compose, by his authority, a dissension among the counts of Manffield, he was feized with a violent infiammation in his stomach, which in a few days put an end to his life, in the fixtythird year of his age. As he was raised up by Providence to be the author of one of the greatest and most interesting revolutions recorded in history, there is not any perfon, perhaps, whose character has been drawn with such oppofite colours. In his own age, one party, ftruck with horror and inflamed with rage, when they saw with what a daring hand he overturned every thing which they held to be sacred, or valued as beneficial, imputed to him not only all the defects and vices of a

man, but the qualities of a dæmon. The other, warmed with admiration and gratitude, which they thought he merited, as the restorer of light and liberty to the Chriftian church, ascribed to him perfections above the condition of humanity, and viewed all his actions with a veneration bordering on that which should be paid only to those who are guided by the imediate inspiration of Heaven. It is his own conduct, not the undiftinguishing censure, nor the exaggerated praise of his contemporaries, which ought to regulate the opinions of the present age concerning him. Zeal for what he regarded as truth, undaunted intrepidity to maintain it, abilities both natural and acquired to defend it, and unwearied industry to propagate it, are virtues which shine so confpicuoufly in every part of his behaviour, that even his enemies must allow him to have poffeffed them in an eminent degree. To these may be added, with equal justice, fuch purity, and even austerity of manners, as became one who affumed the character of a reformer; such sanctity of life as fuited the doctrine which he delivered; and such perfect disinterestedness, as affords no flight presumption of his fincerity. Superior to all selith confiderations, a stranger to the elegancies of life, and despising its pleafures, he left the honours and emoluments of the church to his difciples; remaining fatisfied himself in his original ftate of professor in the university, and paftor to the town of Wittemberg, with the moderate appointments annexed to these offices. His extraordinary qualities were alloyed with no inconfiderable mixture of human frailty, and human passions. These, however, were of fuch a nature, that they cannot be imputed to malevolence or corruption of heart, but feem to have taken their rife from the same source with many of his virtues. His mind, forcible and vehement in all its operations, roused by great objects, or agitated by violent paffions, broke out, on many occafions, with an impetuofity which aftonishes men of feebler spirits, or such as are placed in a more tranquil situation. By carrying some praifeworthy dispositions to excess, he bordered sometimes on what was culpable, and was often betrayed into actions which expofed him to cenfure. His confidence that his own opinions were well founded, approached to arrogance; his courage in afferting them, to rathness; his firmness in adhering to them, to obftinacy; and his zeal in conS14 futing futing his adversaries, to rage and scurrility. Accustomed himself to confider every thing as fubordinate to truth, he expected the fame deference for it from other men; and, without making any allowances for their timidity or prejudices, he poured forth, against those who disappointed him in this particular,

a

torrent of invective mingled with contempt. Regardless of any diftinction of rank or character, when his doctrines were attacked, he chastised all his adversaries, indifcriminately, with the fame rough hand; neither the royal dignity of Henry VIII. nor the eminent learning and ability of Erafmus, fcreened them from the fame abuse with which he treated Tetzel or Eccius.

But these indecencies of which Luther was guilty, must not be imputed wholly to the violence of his temper. They ought to be charged in part on the manners of the age. Among a rude people, unacquainted with those maxims, which, by putting continual restraint on the passions of individuals, have polished society, and rendered it agreeable, disputes of every kind were managed with heat, and strong emotions were uttered in their natural language, without referve or delicacy. At the fame time, the works of learned men were all compofed in Latin; and they were not only authorifed, by the example of eminent writers in that language, to use their antagonists with the most illiberal scurrility; but, in a dead tongue, indecencies of every kind appear less shocking than in a living language, whose idioms and phrases feem grofs, because they are familiar.

In pafling judgment upon the characters of men, we ought to try them by the principles and maxims of their own age, not by those of another. For although virtue and vice are at all times the fame, manners and customs vary continually. Some parts of Luther's behaviour, which to us appear most culpable, gave no disgust to his contemporaries. It was even by fome of those qualities which we are now apt to blame, that he was fitted for accomplishing the great work which he undertook. To rouse mankind, when funk in ignorance or fuperftition, and to encounter the rage of bigotry, armed with power, required the utmost vehemence of zeal, and a temper daring to excess. A gentle call would neither nave reached, nor have excited those to whom it was addressed. A spirit, more amiable, but less vigorous than Luther's, would have shrunk back from the

dangers which he braved and furmounted. Towards the close of Luther's life, though without a perceptible declention of his zeal or abilitics, the infirmities of his temper increased upon him, fo that he daily grew more peevith, more irafcible, and more impatient of contradiction. Having lived to be witness of his own amazing success; to see a great part of Europe embrace his doctrines; and to shake the foundation of the Papal throne, before which the mightiest monarchs had trembled, he discovered, on some occafions, symptoms of vanity and self-applaufe. He must have been indeed more than man, if, upon contemplating all that he actually accomplished, he had never felt any fentiment of this kind rifing in his breaft.

Some time before his death he felt his strength declining, his conftitution being worn out by a prodigious multiplicity of business, added to the labour of difcharging his minifterial function with unremitting diligence, to the fatigue of conftant study, besides the composition of works as voluminous as if he had enjoyed uninterrupted leisure and retirement. His natural intrepidity did not forsake him at the approach of death: his last conversation with his friends was concerning the happiness reserved for good men in a future world, of which he spoke with the fervour and delight natural to one who expected and wished to enter soon upon the enjoyment of it. The account of his death filled the Roman Catholic party with excessive as well as indecent joy, and damped the fpirits of all his followers; neither party sufficiently confidering that his doctrines were now fo firmly rooted, as to be in a condition to flourish, independent of the hand which first had planted them. His funeral was celebrated by order of the Elector of Saxony, with extraordinary pomp. He left several children by his wife, Catharine Bore, who survived him: towards the end of the last century, there were in Saxony fome of his defcendants in decent and honourable stations.

Robertfon.

§40. Character of ALFRED, King of

England.

The merit of this prince, both in private and public life, may with advantage be set in oppofition to that of any monarch or citizen which the annals of any age or any nation can present to us. He feems, indeed, to be the complete model of that perfect perfect character, which, under the denomination of a sage or wife man, the philosophers have been fond of delineating, rather as a fiction of their imagination, than in hopes of ever feeing it reduced to practice: so happily were all his virtues tempered together, so justly were they blended, and so powerfully did each prevent the other from exceeding its proper bounds. He knew how to conciliate the most enterprising spirit with the coolest moderation; the most obstinate perfeverance with the easiest flexibility; the most severe justice with the greatest lenity; the greatest vigour in command with the greatest affability of deportment; the highest capacity and inclination for science, with the most shining talents for action. His civil and his military virtues are almost equally the objects of our admiration, excepting only, that the former, being more rare among princes, as well as more useful, feem chiefly to challenge our applause. Nature also, as if defirous that so bright a production of her skill should be set in the fairest light, had bestowed on him all bodily accomplishments, vigour of limbs, dignity of shape and air, and a pleasant, engaging, and open counteFortune alone, by throwing him into that barbarous age, deprived him of hiftorians worthy to tranfmit his fame to pofterity; and we wish to fee him delineated in more lively colours, and with more par ticular strokes, that we may at least perceive some of those small specks and blemishes, from which, as a man, it is impoffible he could be entirely exempted. Hume.

nance.

§41. Another Character of ALFRED. Alfred, that he might be the better able to extend his charity and munificence, regulated his finances with the most perfect economy, and divided his revenues into a certain number of parts, which he appropriated to the different expences of the ftate, and the exercise of his own private liberality and devotion; nor was he a less ceconomift in the diftribution of his time, which he divided into three equal portions, allotting one to fleep, meals, and exercise; and devoting the other two to writing, reading, business, and prayer. That this division might not be encroached upon inadvertently, he measured them by tapers of an equal fize, which he kept continually burning before the shrines of relics. Alfred seemed to be a genius self-taught, which contrived and comprehended every

thing that could contribute to the security of his kingdom. He was author of that inestimable privilege, peculiar to the fubjects of this nation, which confists in their being tried by their peers; for he first instituted juries, or at least improved upon an old institution, by specifying the num ber and qualifications of jurymen, and extending their power to trials of property as well as criminal indictments; but no regulation redounded more to his honour and the advantage of his kingdom, than the measures he took to prevent rapine, murder, and other outrages, which had fo long been committed with impunity. His attention stooped even to the meanest circumstances of his people's conveniency. He introduced the art of brick-making, and built his own houses of those materials; which being much more durable and secure from accidents than timber, his example was followed by his subjects in general. He was, doubtless, an object of most perfect esteem and admiration; for, exclusive of the qualities which distinguished him as a warrior and legislator, his personal character was amiable in every respect. Died 897, aged 52. Smollett.

§42. Character of WILLIAM the Conqueror.

Few princes have been more fortunate than this great monarch, or were better entitled to prosperity and grandeur for the abilities and vigour of mind which he displayed in all his conduct. His spirit was bold and enterprising, yet guided by prudence. His ambition, which was exorbitant, and lay little under the restraints of justice, and still less under those of humanity, ever fubmitted to the dictates of reason and found policy. Born in an age when the minds of men were intractable and unacquainted with fubmiffion, he was yet able to direct them to his purposes; and, partly from the ascendant of his vehement disposition, partly from art and diffimulation, to establish an unlimited monarchy. Though not insensible to generofity, he was hardened against compaflion, and seemed equally oftentatious and ambitious of eclat in his clemency and his severity. The maxims of his administration were severe; but might have been useful, had they been folely employed in preferving order in an established government: they were ill calculated for foftening the rigours which under the most gentle management sre inseparable from conquest. His attempt against England

was

was the last enterprize of the kind, which, during the course of feven hundred years, had fully fucceeded in Europe; and the greatness of his genius broke through those limits, which frit the feudal infiitution, then the refined policy of princes, have fixed on the several states of Chriftendom. Though he rendered himself infinitely odious to his English subjects, he tranfmitted his power to his pofterity, and the throne is Cill filled by his descendants; a proof that the foundation which he laid was firm and folid, and that amongst all his violences, while he seemed only to gra. tify the prefent passion, he had ftili an eye towards futurity. Died Sept. 9, 1087, aged 63*. Hume.

§43. Another Character of WILLIAM the Conqueror.

From the transactions of William's reign, he appears to have been a prince of great courage, capacity, and ambition; politic, cruel, vindictive, and rapacious; stern and haughty in his deportment, referved and jealous in his disposition. He was fond of glory; and, though parfimonious in his household, delighted much in oftentation. Though sudden and impetuous in his enterprizes, he was cool, deliberate, and indefatigable, in times of danger and difficulty. His aspect was nobly severe and imperious, his stature tall and portly; his constitution robust, and the compofition of his bones and muscles ftrong: there was hardly a man of that age, who could bend his bow, or handle his arms. Smollett.

and at the head of armies, he joined to all the capacity that genius could give, all the knowledge and skill that experience could teach, and was a perfect master of the military art, as it was practifed in the times wherein he lived. His conftitution enabled him to endure any hardships, and very few were equal to him in personal strength, which was an excellence of more importance than it is now, from the manner of lighting then in use. It is said of him, that none except himself could bend his bow. His courage was heroic, and he poffefsed it not only in the field, but (which is more uncommon) in the cabinet, attempting great things with means that to other men appeared totally unequal to such undertakings, and steadily profecuting what he had boldly refolved; being never disturbed or disheartened by difficulties, in the course of his enterprizes; but having that noble vigour of mind, which, instead of bending to opposition, rises against it, and seems to have a power of controlling and commanding Fortune herself.

Nor was he less superior to pleasure than to fear: no luxury softened him, no riot difordered, no sloth relaxed. It helped not a little to maintain the high respect his subjects had for him, that the majesty of his character was never let down by any incontinence or indecent excess. His temperance and his chastity were conftant guards, that secured his mind from all weakness, supported its dignity, and kept it always as it were on the throne. Through his whole life he had no partner of his bed but his queen; a most extraordinary virtue in one who had lived, even

the Conqueror.

The character of this prince has feldom been fet in its true light; some eminent

writers having been dazzled fo much by the more shining parts of it, that they have hardly seen his faults; while others, out of a strong deteftation of tyranny, have been unwilling to allow him the praise he deferves.

He may with justice be ranked among the greatest generals any age has produced. There was united in him activity, vigilance, intrepidity, caution, great force of judgment, and never-failing prefence of mind. He was ftrict in his difcipline, and kept his foldiers in perfect obedience; yet preserved their affection. Having been from his very childhood continually in war,

* Smollett fays, 61,

of camps, the allurements of a court, and the seductions of sovereign power! Had he kept his oaths to his people as well as he did his marriage vow, he would have

been the best of kings; but he indulged

other paflions of a worse nature, and in

finitely more detrimental to the public than those he restrained. A luft of power, which no regard to justice could limit, the most unrelenting cruelty, and the most insatiable

avarice, poffeffed his foul. It is true, indeed, that among many acts of extreme inhumanity, fome shining inftances of great clemency may be produced, that were either effects of his policy, which taught him this method of acquiring friends, or of his magnanimity, which made him flight a weak and fubdued enemy, fuch as was Edgar Atheling, in whom he found neither fpirit nor talents able to contend with him for

for the crown. But where he had no advantage nor pride in forgiving, his nature difcovered itself to be utterly void of all tenfe of compaffion; and some barbarities which he committed exceeded the bounds that even tyrants and conquerors prescribe to themselves.

Moft of our ancient hiftorians give him the character of a very religious prince; but his religion was after the fashion of those times, belief without examination, and devotion without piety. It was a religion that prompted him to endow monafteries, and at the same time allowed him to pillage kingdoms; that threw him on his knees before a relic or cross, but fuffered him unrestrained to trample upon the liberties and rights of mankind.

As to his wifdom in government, of which some modern writers have spoken very highly, he was indeed so far wife that, through a long unquiet reign, he knew how to fupport oppreffion by terror, and employ the propereit means for the carrying on a very iniquitous and violent adminiftration. But that which alone deferves the name of wisdom in the character of a king, the maintaining of authority by the exercise of those virtues which make the happiness of his people, was what, with all his abilities, he does not appear to have possessed. Nor did he excel in those foothing and popular arts, which fometimes change the complexion of a tyranny, and give it a fallacious appearance of freedom. His government was harsh and despotic, violating even the principles of that conftitution which he himself had established. Yet so far he performed the duty of a fovereign, that he took care to maintain a good police in his realm; curb ing licentiousness with a strong hand, which, in the tumultuous state of his government, was a great and difficult work. How well he performed it we may learn even from the teftimony of a contemporary Saxon hiftorian, who says, that during his reign a man might have travelled in perfect security all over the kingdom with his bofom full of gold, nor durst any kill another in revenge of the greatest offences, nor offer violence to the chastity of a woman, But it was a poor compenfation, that the highways were fafe, when the courts of justice were dens of thieves, and when almost every man in authority, or in office, used his power to opprefs and pillage the people. The king himself did not only tolerate, but encourage, support, and even share these extortions. Though the great

ness of the ancient landed estate of the crown, and the feudal profits to which he legally was entitled, rendered him one of the richest monarchs in Europe, he was not content with all that opulence, but by authorizing the sheriffs, who collected his revenues in the several counties, to practise the most grievous vexations and abuses, for the raising of them higher, by a perpetual auction of the crown lands, so that none of his tenants could be secure of poffeffion, if any other would come and offer more; by various iniquities in the court of exchequer, which was entirely Norman; by forfeitures wrongfully taken; and, lastly, by arbitrary and illegal taxations, he drew into his treasury much too great a proportion of the wealth of his kingdom.

It must however be owned, that if his avarice was infatiably and unjustly rapacious, it was not meanly parsimonious, nor of that fordid kind which brings on a prince dishonour and contempt. He supported the dignity of his crown with a decent magnificence; and though he never was lavish, he sometimes was liberal, more especially to his foldiers and to the church. But looking on money as a necessary means of maintaining and increasing power, he defired to accumulate as much as he could, rather, perhaps, from an ambitious than a covetous nature; at least his avarice was subservient to his ambition, and he laid up wealth in his coffers, as he did arms in his magazines, to be drawn out, when any proper occafion required it, for the defence and enlargement of his dominions.

Upon the whole, he had many great qualities, but few virtues; and if those actions that most particularly diftinguish the man or the king are impartially confidered, we shall find that in his character there is much to admire, but still more to abhor. Lyttelton.

§45. The Character of WILLIAM RUFUS.

The memory of this monarch is tranfmitted to us with little advantage by the churchmen, whom he had offended; and though we may suspect in general that their account of his vices is somewhat exaggerated, his conduct affords little reason for contradicting the character which they have affigned him, or for attributing to him any very estimable qualities: he seems to have been a violent and tyrannical prince; a perfidious, encroaching, and dangerous