ness and brutality. Tertullian said that "stage plays are the pomp of the devil;" and Clement of Rome and Augustine denounced the theatre in terms equally sweeping and strong. Under this opposition of the church, the dramas. of Greece and Rome fell into oblivion, except where outcast and wandering actors preserved some faint tradition of them. The modern drama has an ecclesiastical origin. Its beginnings are found in the Miracle plays, which, during the latter part of the Middle Ages, were common not only in England, but throughout all Europe. These plays, sometimes called Mysteries, represented scenes in sacred history and in the lives of saints. They were written by ecclesiastics, and performed under the auspices of the church, in abbeys and cathedrals. At a time when preaching was unusual, they were employed to instruct the people in the historical portions of the Scripture. Subsequently, they were performed by trading companies in the towns, who used movable platforms called pageants. In spite of their religious origin and aim, these plays often degenerated into gross irreverence and buffoonery; and at their best, judged by present standards, they were crude in form and style. The Miracle plays were succeeded by the Moralities, which introduced as dramatis persona the leading virtues and vices. They satisfied a popular love of allegory, and retained a hold on the public mind till the time of Elizabeth. One of the last dramatic representations attended by the queen was a Morality, entitled the "Contention between Liberality and Prodigality," and performed in the year 1600. Sometimes, along with the virtues and vices, characters from real life were introduced; and by thus touching upon current events and existing manners, the Morality gained an additional element of popularity. A further approach to the modern drama was made by the Interludes, a sort of farcical representation invented by John Heywood early in the sixteenth century, and designed to relieve the tediousness of the Miracle play or Morality. - an The first English comedy was "Ralph Royster Doyster," written by Nicholas Udall, headmaster of Eton and translator of Terence. The exact date of its composition is not known, but it appeared prior to 1551. Unlike the Miracle and Moral plays, it is divided into acts and scenes advance in dramatic form suggested by classical models. The first regular tragedy, entitled "Gorboduc," followed a few years later. It was written by Thomas Sackville, and performed before the queen in 1562. It exhibits the first application of blank verse to dramatic composition in England. Like the comedy just spoken of, its form was affected by Greek and Roman models, with which Sackville had become acquainted at Oxford and Cambridge. It is chiefly notable as introducing the splendid theatrical outburst of the Elizabethan era. Before the close of the sixteenth century there appeared a large number of dramatists, whose works possess not simply historical interest, but also intrinsic excellence. Among the predecessors of Shakespeare were Kyd, Lyly, Peele, Greene, and Marlowe. Special buildings for dramatic entertainments were not erected till late in the sixteenth century. Before that time the plays were acted in tents, wooden sheds, courtyards of inns, and cock-pits the name pit, applied to the lowest place in theatres, still suggesting this association. The first building in London for dramatic purposes was erected in 1576. It was speedily followed by others; and before the close of the century eleven theatres were built, chiefly on the southern or Surrey bank of the Thames, in order to be beyond the jurisdiction of the Puritan city government. The most famous of these theatres, because of its association with Shakespeare, was The Globe, so called from its sign, which represented Atlas supporting the world, with the striking motto, "Totus mundus agit histrionem." These early theatres were all built after the same model, suggested, no doubt, by the enclosed courts of inns. A central platform served for the stage, which was surrounded by seats except on one side reserved for a dressing room. The upper galleries, which extended around the entire building, were occupied by boxes. This arrangement generally led to the adoption of octagonal-shaped buildings. Most of the theatres were uncovered, except immediately over the stage. There was no movable scenery, and the female parts were acted by men and boys. A placard, bearing the name of Rome, Paris, or London, as the case might be, indicated the scene of the action. The plays began in the forenoon, and were attended by people of every social condition. In spite of the opposition of the Puritan corporation of London, the drama made rapid progress; and in one generation it passed from infancy to full maturity, exhibiting a compass, strength, and majesty unparalleled in the literary history of any other country. Twenty-five years after the construction of the first theatre, the "Merchant of Venice," "Romeo and Juliet," and "Hamlet" were presented on the stage. A large number of dramatic poets in London - Greene, Marlowe, Shakespeare, Jonson, Beaumont, Fletcher, Massinger, and others were engaged in supplying the popular demand for plays; and such was the genius of several of these writers that they would stand out with prominence but for the overshadowing figure of one consummate master. In the main, they were men of liberal culture; but frequently their strength was wasted in licentious and intemperate living. Many of them were actors, and began their literary careers by retouching the plays of others. As the price of a drama was only from seven to twenty pounds, they were often in want of bread; and it is a curious fact that many of the details we have of their lives are taken from the journal of a pawn-broker and moneylender. Among the minor dramatists there is one that seems to deserve more particular mention. In the Poets' Corner of Westminster Abbey a slab bears the simple inscription, "O Rare Ben Jonson." Though two and a half centuries have passed since it was carved there, the literary world, with remarkable unanimity, has approved it as just. He was a strong, learned, large-minded, and big-hearted piece of manhood - John Bull personified, as Whipple suggests. Ben Jonson was born in London in 1573. After a brief course at Cambridge, he became a soldier in the Netherlands, where he distinguished himself by his bravery. But military life had little charm for him, and after a single campaign he returned to London and connected himself with a theatre. As an actor he failed completely. a dramatic author he was more fortunate, and in 1596 his But as comedy, "Every Man in his Humor," in which Shakespeare acted a part, established his reputation. It was about this time that the acquaintance between the two dramatists began. We have a pleasing contemporary picture of them as they met, along with Beaumont, Fletcher, and other poets, at the Falcon Tavern, the home of the Mermaid Club founded by Raleigh. "Many were the wit combats," says Fuller, "betwixt Shakespeare and Ben Jonson, which two I behold like a Spanish great galleon and an English man-of-war; Master Jonson, like the former, was built far higher in learning; solid, but slow in his performances. Shakespeare, with the English man-of-war, lesser in bulk, but lighter in sailing, could turn with all tides, tack about and take advantage of all winds, by the quickness of his wit and invention." ture. After the success of "Every Man in his Humor," Jonson wrote, at pretty regular intervals, a series of dramas, several of which "Volpone," "The Silent Woman," and "The Alchemist"-occupy a high rank in dramatic literaBut he was a lyrical as well as dramatic poet. It has even been contended that lyrical poetry was his special sphere. However that may be, he undoubtedly possessed lyrical gifts of a high order, as may be seen in the following well-known song: "Drink to me only with thine eyes, And I will pledge with mine; And I'll not look for wine. The thirst that from the soul doth rise But might I of Jove's nectar sup, I would not change for thine. |