In going up the Nile, they used the sail, whenever the wind was favourable, occasionally rowing, in those parts where the sinuosities of the river brought it too much upon the bows; for it is probable that, like the modern Egyptians, they did not tack in navigating the river; and when the wind was contrary, or during a calm, they generally employed the tow-line, which was pulled by men on shore.

After they had reached the southernmost point of their journey up the stream, the sail was no longer considered necessary; and the mast and yards being taken down, were laid over the top of the cabin, or on a short temporary mast, with a forked summit; precisely in the same way, and with the same view, as at the present day, on board the cangias, and other masted rowing boats of Egypt. For as the wind generally blows from the N. W., it seldom happens that the sail can be used in going down the Nile, and in a strong wind the mast and rigging are so great an incumbrance, that the boat is unable to make any way against it, with oars.

No. 370.- A boat with the mast and sail taken down, having a chariot and horses on board.

Eilethyas.

The heavy boats of burden, which from their

great size cannot be propelled by oars, are suffered to retain their masts and sails, and float down the river sideways at the rate of the stream, advantage being taken of the wind whenever the bends of the river allow of it; and the large germs, used for carrying corn during the inundation, are only employed when the water is very deep, and are laid up the rest of the year, and covered with matting from the sun. These, therefore, form exceptions to the ordinary boats of the Nile, and may be considered similar to some represented in the sculptures of Alabastron, which are fastened to the shore by several large ropes, and are shown from the size of their cabins, the large awning in front for covering the goods they carried, and the absence of oars, to have been of unusual dimensions.

In a boat given in the preceding wood-cut from a tomb at Eilethyas, an error has frequently been made respecting the wheel upon the top of the cabin, which some have supposed to be connected with the sail*, in order to enable the yard to traverse with greater facility, or for some such purpose; but on a careful examination of the subject, it proves to be part of a chariot, too much defaced by time to be easily perceived at first sight, and the horses belonging to it are seen below in front of the cabin. This circumstance not only shows the comforts with which the Egyptian grandees travelled, when going from one part of the country to the other, but affords additional proof of the size of the boats used upon the Nile.

*The other boat represented in this subject has the sail up, and the same chariot on board. It is, indeed, the same boat, with and without the sail.

Large boats had generally one, boats two rudders, at the stern.

small pleasureThe former tra

versed upon a beam, between two projecting heads, a short pillar or mast supporting it and acting as the centre on which it moved; the latter were nearly the same in principle except that they turned on a bar, or in a ring, by which they were suspended to the gunnel at either side; and in both instances the steersman directed them, by means of a rope fastened to the upper extremity. The rudders consisted of a long broad blade and still longer handle, evidently made in imitation of the oars, by which they originally steered their boats, before they had so far improved them as to adopt a fixed rudder; and in order to facilitate its motion upon the mast or pillar, and to avoid the friction of the wood, a piece of bull's hide was introduced, as is the custom in the modern boats, between the mast and yard.

The oars were a long round wooden shaft, to which a flat board, of oval or circular form, was fastened; and it is remarkable that the same oar is used to this day on the Ganges, and in the Arabian Gulf. They turned either on toll-pins, or in rings, fastened to the gunnel of the boat, and the rowers sat on the deck, on benches, or on low seats, or stood or knelt to the oar, sometimes pushing it forwards, sometimes, and indeed more generally, pulling it, as is the modern custom in Egypt, and most other countries.

At the head of the boat a man* usually stood,

* The "Custos et tutela proræ.” Ovid, Met. iii. 617.

with a long pole in his hand, by which he tried at intervals the depth of the water, lest they should run upon any of the numerous sandbanks with which the river abounds, and which, from their often changing at the time of the inundation, could not always be known to the most skilful pilot; a precaution still adopted by the modern boatmen of the Nile.

That the ancient Egyptian boats were built with ribs, like those of the present day, is sufficiently proved by the rude models discovered in the tombs of Thebes. It is probable that they had very little keel, in order to enable them to avoid the sandbanks, and to facilitate their removal from them when they struck; and, indeed, if we may judge from the models, they appear to have been flatbottomed. The boats now used on the Nile have a very small keel, particularly at the centre, where it is concave; so that when the head strikes, they put to the helm, and the hollow part clears the bank; except in those cases where the impetus is too great, or the first warning is neglected.

The sails of the ancient boats appear to have been always square, with a yard above and below; in which they differ from those now adopted in Egypt. The only modern boats with square sails are a sort of lighter, employed for conveying stones from the quarries to Cairo and other places; and these have only a yard at the top. All other boats have latine or triangular-shaped sails, which, in

* The middree of the Arabs, the contus, or pertica, of the Romans. 0 4

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order to catch the wind when the Nile is low, are made of immense size: for unless they reach above its lofty banks they are often prevented from benefiting by a side wind at that season of the year; but the number of accidents which occur are a great objection to the use of such disproportionate sails.

The cabins of the Egyptian boats were lofty and spacious; they did not, however, always extend over the whole breadth of the boat, as in the modern cangias, but merely occupied the centre; the rowers sitting on either side, generally on a bench or stool. They were made of wood, with a door in front, or sometimes on one side, and they were painted within and without with numerous devices, in brilliant and lively colours.* The same custom continued to the latest times, long after the conquest of the country by the Romans ; and when the Arabs invaded Egypt in 638, under Amer, the general of the Caliph Omer, one of the objects which struck them with surprise was the gay appearance of the painted boats of the Nile.

The lotus was one of their favourite devices, as on their furniture, the ceilings of rooms, and other places, and it was very common on the blade of the rudder, where it was frequently repeated at both ends, together with the eye. But the place considered peculiarly suited to the latter emblem was the head or bow of the boat; and the custom is still retained in some countries to the present day. In India it is very generally adopted; and we even

* Vide plate 16.—Conf. Plin. 357.