pear about the 15 of April; the barn-swallow, martin, king-bird, eagle, kingfisher and lark, about the 15 to 25, with the opening of the flower-buds of the peach ;those of the apple and pear, about the 25 to 30 of April. The usual range of the thermometer, is between 64° and 70° to 72°, in the middle of the day from the 10 of April, to the 15 of May. 90 is a high summer temperature, and never continues but for a few days in succession. Early wheat, is cut about the 12 July; and wheat and rye harvest completed about 15 August. Buckwheat, is cut in October; and maize ripens from the middle of September to the 10 or 20 of October. Oats are cut about the middle of August; and grass, from the 4 to the last of July, The seed for winter rye and wheat, is sown from the 20 August, to the last of September: and the thermometer often indicates 90° in September. In September, 1810, it was 92° to 93° in the shade, at 2 P. M. for three days in succession.

From the middle of March to the last of April, the weather is very variable; the changes of temperature great and sudden, though generally rainy, with long storms of easterly winds. May, is a variable month also, and the first half usually wet; with frequent changes of wind to about the 15th, when it becomes characterized by a milder aspect. June, assumes a summer character, about the 10th to 20th, with some thunder-showers, and a summer aspect of the clouds. In July, we have less southerly winds, and are most subject to drowth, though but little injury is usually sustained from this source. August, is more showery, with the greatest uniformity of temperatures of any month in the year; when the influences of the cloud-capt summits of the Catsberg or Catskill, become splendidly conspicuous, in sending frequent thunder-showers over the surrounding country--and thus diffusing health and plenty to millions.

To about the 15 or 20, September is much like August; assuming a different character however, with the equinoctial storm, which we usually have. But the latter half is mild, and very pleasant. October, is a pleasant month, and the best in the year for travelling, if we except June, which some prefer. Early frosts, sufficient to destroy the tender garden vegetables, occur about the 26 September, though corn ripens till the middle of October. The foliage of the forest trees suffers by the early frosts, though not generally killed before the 15 to 25th of October; and early flurries of snow commence about the same time. December, is ususually cold and showery, with frequent and long storms from the E. and N. east, attended with rain, sleet, hail and snow, to complete the catalogue of early winter; though sleighs are little used till about Christmas, which brings us to the season of good-natured and mutual gratulation, domestic plenty and fire-side joys! The Indian-Summer, a peculiar and elegant feature of an American autumn, in connection with the splendid and rich variety of tint assumed by the forest foliage at that season, commences, usually about the last of October, and extends into December with occasional interruptions by eastern storms.

But it is a common and correct observation, that the temperatures and the weather are more variable, and the seasons not so clearly defined as formerly. This may probably be owing to opening the country by removal of the wood, allowing a greater circulation, and extending the influence of the winds. A general modification, favorable to our agricultural interests, has therefore taken place within the last 10 or 15 years. And though ancient people regret that we have less sleighing in winter than formerly, yet men of observation agree in opinion that the increased fertility of their lands, is more than a compensation. And this amelioration must progress with the extension of cultivation; and will be accelerated, not inconsiderably, by improved agriculture.

INLAND NAVIGATION, AND CANALS. The details under this article, are necessarily anticipated in a considerable degree, by those of the preceding articles. And as the rivers are minutely described under their respective names in the Gazetteer, a view of the inland navigation is exhibited in those descriptions.

It may be said, however, that no portion of the United States enjoys such facilities for inland navigation, as the State of New-York; combining, in the consideration, the objects and the means of intercourse. The Hudson, opens a good sloop navigation for vessels of 100 tons to Albany. And, passing the carrying place to Schenectady 15 miles, the Mohawk affords a boat navigation, with the aid of 2 short canals, that at the Little Fails, and at Rome, to Wood creek; thus extending the navigation through Oneida Lake and Oswego river, to Lake Ontario, with the exception of 2 other short portages in Oswego river; a distance of 203 miles from Schenectady; 218 from Albany, with but 15 miles, land carriage; and 393 miles

from New-York. The connection of the various lakes and streams, noticed under OsWEGO RIVER, extend many facilities of inland intercourse to the surrounding popula tion. Arks and boats descend the waters that this state furnishes to the Delaware, Susquehanna, and through the Allegany and Ohio, to Missisippi and New-Orleans. The communication by Lake Erie, Niagara river, and the Ontario, with the St. Lawrence, is very important to the interests of a great share of our western population ;---including the navigation of many streams that enter those waters. The Hudson, brings a vast supply of rafts from Fort Edward; and of lumber which is there made into rafts, from a great extent of country above, on its own waters, and even from Lake George and some from Champlain. And the navigation of Lake Champlain, is of considerable and increasing importance ;-nor is the period very remote, when a canal will probably connect this lake with the navigation of the Hudson.

The CANAL at Rome, connecting the waters of the Mohawk and Lake Ontario, was completed in 1797. This canal is about 1 1-2 mile in length, with a lock at each end. It is fed by a lateral cut from the Mohawk, which enters the canal nearly a mile W. of the lock at that river. The lift, at the eastern lock, is 10 feet; that at the western, 8 feet. Connected with this plan, there are 4 other locks on Wood creek, within 5 miles of Rome. These are made by throwing dams across the stream, raising the water, and opening the communication through locks. The first of these, lifts 4 feet; the 2d, 6 feet; the 3d, 7 feet; and the 4th, 8 feet, making in all 25 feet; or 33 feet to the level of the canal. The 4th above mentioned, is near the mouth of Canada creek, from whence it was supposed there would be a sufficient depth of water. Batteaus, carrying from 3 to 15 tons, and drawing 2 feet water, pass the canal at all times; but in times of severe drowth, experience some difficulty below, both in the Mohawk and Wood creek. A well informed Correspondent, computes the number of boats that annually pass these locks, at 300; and that they carry 1500 tons of goods, produce, &c. The canal at the Little-Falls of the Mohawk, completed in 1795, has several locks, and extends the navigation by a fall of 42 feet, within one mile.

Under this head may be introduced the expense of transportation, from New York to Oswego. From New-York to Albany, bulky articles pay about 40 cents per hundred weight; heavy, from 10 to 20 cents-say common freight, to average 25 to 30 cents per hundred. From Albany to Schenectady, 16 cents. From Schenectady to Utica, 75 cents; and from Utica to Oswego, $1.25 per hundred, including lockage, portage-money, &c.-making in all, $2.35 to $2.40 cents per hundred weight through this whole distance.

The Western Inland Lock Navigation Company, has been incorporated by this state, for the purpose of improving the navigation of the western waters.

But, the project of a Great Western Canal, to connect Lake Erie and the Hudson by a boat navigation, is now a principal topic in this state. Commissioners have examined the country, and have reported in favor of the project, but on a plan which, to my apprehension, is generally impracticable. The object is certainly a desideratum of vast importance; and the magnitude of the undertaking is warranted by the ample means at our disposal. But the object is, or ought to be, a national one; and Congress will probably be induced to lend efficient aid whenever its practicability shall be satisfactorily demonstrated to that body.

BAYS AND ISLANDS. The Bays, properly so called, belonging to this state, are but few in number, exclusive of those of Long-Island, which are very numerous. For Hungry bay, the largest, and its several ramifications, see Jefferson County. This opens from the E. end of Lake Ontario, and Great and Little Sodus, and Gerundegut* or Teoronto, Braddock's and some still smaller open from that Lake on the S. shore. Aufer, or Iron-bay, is formed by point au-fer; as is Cumberland-bay, by Cumberland-head, on Lake Champlain; besides these Peru-bay, N. W. bay, and W. bay, are also on the W. shore of that Lake; as is S. bay at its southern extremity.

* The Indian name of this Bay, is Teoronto; which signifies in the dialect of the Onondagas, almost lake: and these people still persist in that name, a much better one than Gerundegut. The French Presque, for almost, or Presqu'isle, for almost island, is universally received in Geography as a proper and designative name for a peninsula almost insulated. And Teoranto, for almost lake, is equally entitled to notice, thougk it come from the unpolished Indigenes of our western woods.

And there is a N. W. bay also, on the W. shore of Lake George. There are some mere expansions of the waters of the Hudson, known to sailors by the names of Tappan, Haverstraw and New-Windsor bays.

The Islands of this state, are numerous, and form an important feature of our Geography. Among those, Nassau, or Long-Island, claims the first place. To the possession of this, are we indebted for more than 100 miles of our sea-coast, many excellent harbors, and important facilities of trade and commerce. This Island is much indented with bays, some of which are very large. The principal of these on the S. side are Jamaica, Rockaway, Parsonage, Jerusalem, and Shinecough bays; and near the E. end, Gardiner's, a very large bay, embracing several islands, the western extremity opens into Great Peconick bay-on the N. side, or next the Sound, Drowned Meadow bay, Great Bay, Oyster, North-Hempstead bay, Cow bay, Little Neck bay, Flushing bay, and Clinton bay, which forms Clinton harbor. Nor must the Wallaboght be omitted. The principal islands, belonging to Long-Island, in the same order, are, Barren, Jamaica, Hog, Rockaway, and Swan islands, on the S. side; Gardiner's and Plumb, at the E. end; Shelter Island, Great Hogneck, Little Hogneck and Robin's islands, in Gardiner's and Peconick bays. In addition to these bays and islands, the heads, points, coves, ponds, inlets, &c. are almost innumerable. But Governor's, Bedlow's Ellis's, and some other islands in the bay of New-York, must not be omitted. Manhattan, or York Island, on which stands New-York city; and Staten-Island, are of the next importance. The Hudson, has many islands, very rich and fertile, though principally small, and of little geographical importance. Those situated about the mouths of the Mohawk, are known to history, some fortifications having been erected there during the American war. And most people who have navigated the Hudson, are acquainted with the ducking celebrity of Pollopell's Istand, at the northern entrance into the Highlands. The islands of the Mohawk, and the other rivers, though numerous, are too small and inconsiderable for general notice. But many of these are important appendages to farms, and to the interests of agriculture. Those near Albany furnish vast supplies of luxuriant vegetables for that market.

At the E. end, and at the outlet of Lake Ontario, are some islands which belong to this state. These are Stoney, Grenadier, Fox, Grandisle, Carlton, and some others of less note, beside the multitudinous group called the thousand islands, situated 20 to 35 miles down the St. Lawrence, the largest part of which are E. of the channel of that river. There are also many others in the St. Lawrence, little known ex. cept to boatmen, though some of them are cultivated with success. And Grand, Strawberry, and Goat Islands, in Niagara river, lie within this state. In Lake Champlain, Crab, Valcour, and Schuyler's islands, are the principal of those belonging to this state. Lake George, has a multitude of small islands; but Long-Island, is of course the largest; and Diamond island, has some celebrity, as being the resort of parties of pleasure from Caldwell, though little more than a barren rock, as are the most of those in Lake George. The group of little isles at the Narrows, de, serve notice only as a curiosity; and as such they merit a distinguished rank.

ROADS, TURNPIKES, AND BRIDGES. I know not in what form to present the details of this article. The roads of this state, particularly those in the new parts, are certainly very good, and conveniently disposed; and when we take into view the recent settlement of a large extent of country, where they have been constructed, I can but believe they would bear a comparison with those of any other portion of the United States. And no state has been more liberal in making appropriations of public funds, for the purpose of extending good roads into every section of the state. Corporate bodies have also been multiplied for these purposes, till their nominal stock amounts to 8,067,000 dollars, in the charters for Turnpikes and Toll Bridges alone. A list of these, with the respective lengths of road, and nominal stock, would fill several pages. Nor could it be likely to afford any other than unsatisfactory information, such is the aukward confusion of names in the several charters. Another and important objection to this mode, arises from the defective construction of some of these roads: though I confess, and with pleasure, that many of them are well laid and wrought. And, as many of them are not yet completed through the whole extent of their contemplated distances, another objection arises from the difficulty of ascertaining the respective distances of finished and unfinished road.

The Charters for Toll-Bridges, (36 in number) have created nominal stock to the amount of $509,000; and these and the Turnpike companies, 135 in number, are

probably authorised to erect about 450 toll-gates: But they have opened, and are opening about 4500 miles of Road! The principal Turnpikes and great leading roads, are shown by dotted lines on the Map; and a general view of them is noticed in the geographical descriptions.

The central position of Albany, as a place of trade, of commerce, of travel, and of general intercourse, renders it of course, the great point of concentration for all the great roads of this region. A bare enumeration of those which connect Albany with the surrounding countries, would fill several pages. But the great chain of turnpikes that extend from the E. line of the state, near the Village of New-Lebanon, through Albany, Schenectady, Utica, Geneva, Canandaigua and Batavia, to Buffalo, must not be omitted; a distance which sufficiently bespeaks the magnitude of the object-being 324 miles. From this grand avenue, turnpikes and country roads traverse the western country in every direction. And while the people have been progressively learning that too many turnpike companies were formed, they have much improved the country roads, by copying the turnpike manner of construction. And if evils or inconveniences have been found in the speculating extent of the turnpike system, that system has also done much good; and the evils bid fair to work their own remedy, in this case, though they may not end here. The rage for speculation that blew up the turnpike bubble, and burst it, is now transferred to manufactures.

From the best information that I can obtain, after much enquiry and research, I suppose we have now opened for travel, about 16 to 1680 miles of turnpike road! A vast extent and some part of this system has proved of proportionate importance to the interests of the citizens, and the community at large.

The BRIDGES that have been erected within 10 years, and those too of very con. siderable magnitude, are almost innumerable-and of these, about 35 are authorised to collect Toll. But there are many other bridges on the country roads, that do great honor to the public spirit of the inhabitants.

The first bridge that crosses the Hudson, is at Waterford; the next at FortMiller, both toll bridges. A toll bridge across the Mohawk, one mile below the Cohoes, was completed in 1795, at the expense of 12,000 dollars. It is 1100 feet long, 24 wide, resting on 13 stone pillars. From here to Schenectady is one other toll bridge, across the Mohawk; and at Schenectady, one of the best toll bridges in the state. At Utica, there is a very good bridge across the Mohawk, and some others below. The Cayuga bridge was destroyed by the ice in 1807, and is not rebuilt. It cost 20,000 dollars, and was one mile in length. In every direction, where roads cross the numerous rivers and streams, bridges have been erected; and the plan of building is, in general, pretty good. Though I apprehend the use of more stone and iron would be found more profitable to those who pay the expenses, although it would considerably augment the first cost. In this particular, it would be well to copy the Pennsylvanians, in more instances.

SOIL AND AGRICULTURE. A deep, warm soil, rather dry than wet, affords the best rewards, in general, to good husbandry: because, this constitutes the best medium soil for grain or grass, and allows a change or rotation of crops; which if well adapted, enrich rather than impoverish the soil. Soil, in relation to land, or earth, constitutes the superstratum, of various depths and qualities. It is that portion of the surface usually penetrated by the roots of agricultural and other plants, and which affords to these their principal nourishment. But the roots of forest trees, though they derive their principal nourishment also, from the soil, often and indeed pretty generally, send some portion of their roots through this to the substratum on which it rests. The soil is of a much looser texture; and has various proportions of admixture with vegetable remains: in new countries and unexhausted soils, a very large, and not unfrequently an undue proportion. When this is the case, it constitutes a thick coat of vegetable mold, with a small proportion of earth, and is called black muck by the farmers in this country; and this soil, even with good husbandry, fails and becomes exhausted after from 15 to 20 or 30 years; nor can good husbandry, with manures, and all the arts of agriculture, again reclaim or restore it: The fault is not in the soil, nor in the management of the farmer; but exists in the substratum on which the soil rests, which is generally a hard, compacted earth, denominated hard-pan, by the farmers. This stratum has no vegetable mixture; is cold and usually stony. Its compactness and unporosity, prevents a due supply of moisture to the surface, while its coldness retards

the process of evaporation, and of putrefaction of decaying substances. Hence the accumulation on its surface, in the form of semi-putrified vegetables, instead of earth, to which they would have been reduced in a much less time, had they lain on a moist and warm surface. Such is the origin of black muck, and such the comparative value of this description of land. Its substratum is always of a cold nature, and supplies moisture only in scanty veins. A gravelly porous substratum, is usually warmer and moist. Its soil, in most countries, has an admixture of earth of vegetable origin, with sand or gravel, of a darkened hue, but not a dark blacklike muck, that has deceived thousands in the choice of land.

The preceding articles, in which are noticed very minutely, the face of the country, its mountains, rivers, lakes, creeks, &c., must have exhibited such features of general outline, that little need be detailed of the soil in particular parts. The W. end of Long Island, is rich, fertile, and in a high state of cultivation; the eastern part, has a large proportion of sandy, barren plains. Below the Highlands, the soil is principally dry and warm-a gravelly or sandy substratum, or granitic rock. It may be called a good medium soil in general. N. of the Highlands to the Mohawk, the soil is dry and warm; either a gravelly or sandy loam in generalalso a medium soil. But the rocks are, on the eastern border of the state, principally shistic; and a shistic gravel, forms much of the soil, which is warm and productive, though not deep. The alluvial flats of Columbia, and some part of Rensselaer Counties, are very extensive and rich: and the vallies, presenting a warm gravelly soil, are also extensive, and furnish much good medium soil. W. of Albany, are extensive sandy plains, interspersed with marshes, and rather cold and wet till we approach the Helderberg hills. This plain, is generally underlaid by clay; but the Helderberg hills are calcareous, and present a better soil, though broken and much diversified.

The agricultural products of this division of the whole territory of the state, consist of all the various productions of this country. The W. part of Long Isl and, and the counties of Westchester and Dutchess, are under very good cultivation. Of some part of Columbia, we must make an exception. But where the land is divided into small freeholds, possessed in fee by the cultivators, a spirit of improvement has become very conspicuous within a few years. Dutchess, is one of the best farming counties in the state; and probably derives a greater amount of annual receipts from agriculture, than any other county. The introduction of gypsum as a manure, has marked a new era in the agriculture and rural economy of this region. By this mean, and consequent attention and improvements, the pro. ducts of the 2d or 3d quality of land have been nearly doubled within the last 10 years; and land of this description has risen in value 20 to 30 and 40 per cent. Farmers have found a new climate; and weeds and insects before so troublesome, have yielded to manure, a rotation of crops, and improved husbandry in every department. But the glory of this change, exists with the practical farmer i and instead of having had the new climate sent him, by a "change of winds, and a new direction given to the clouds," he has been aiding in the formation of a local climate;-while farming is every year becoming more respectable as an occupation. In the progress of these improvements, which have in some degree pervaded the whole state, the W. side of the Hudson, is considerably behind the eastern, in the region of which I am now particularly speaking. A summary view of our EXPORTS, will better shew the extent and variety of our agricultural products, than detailed enumerations under this article. The southern part of Washington County, has a warm, gravelly medium soil, and abundant crops. Saratoga, has much good, but more waste land: Its general character is more sandy; and like that of Albany county, rests on clay. Around Lake Champlain, there is a large extent of clayey soil, extending to the hills that skirt the Peru mountains. Much of this country is comparatively new; but its inhabitants are actively engaged in the agricultural spirit of the southern counties. With the exception of its alluvial flats, which are extensive and rich, the soil of the country of the Mohawk, may be generally denominated a stiff loam, till we go W. of the Catsberg hills, (or Catskill,) at the Little Falls. Here it assumes a new character, and evidently belongs to the vast elevated plain of the western region, occupied by the small lakes. This distinction is made, because the mountainous district of the western region, requires a separate description and character. The soil of this mountainous tract, is very much diversified. The hills rocky and precipitous; the vallies deep and narrow, er spacious and rich. This tract furnishes considerable black muck, or deep ve