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CHAPTER XXXVI.

Review.

WE have now noticed the great states and empires of antiquity, and given some idea of their political institutions. We have seen that the first great empire of the world was that of Assyria, which began with Nimrod, about 2200 years before Christ, and which continued till about the year 538, when it was swallowed up by Persia.

Persia greatly extended its dominion, and under Cyrus and Cambyses, about 530 years B. C., it embraced Mesopotamia, Palestine, Syria, and Egypt. In the year 330, Persia was invaded by Alexander of Macedon; its capital was taken and its king put to flight. The Greek dominion was of short duration, for the Parthians soon conquered Persia, since which period it has ever continued to be an inferior power.

Throughout the whole history of the great ancient empires, the government was despotic, the kings claiming absolute authority, even to the taking of life and property, and the people blindly and slavishly submitting.

The political institutions of other countries in Asia have also been similar to those of Persia and Assyria, excepting among the wandering tribes, who have ever maintained a patriarchal form of government. China and Japan, two populous empires, have despotic governments, and both exclude foreigners from their dominions, allowing them to trade only at a single port in each country. These two last, though of great an

tiquity, still continue to maintain their ancient systems with little change.

The institutions of the Hebrews, though in some respects similar to those of most eastern nations, were in others altogether peculiar, and have never been adopted by any other nation of ancient or modern times.

With the exception of the last, we see little in the governments of these countries that is worthy of our imitation. We learn from them, indeed, only lessons of warning. They all show us that countries submitting to despotic institutions, continue in a state of ignorance, weakness and degradation. About 1500 years before Christ, the seeds of learning and arts are wafted from Egypt to Greece, and here, after five hundred years, they spring up and flourish. It is in Greece that the first clear ideas of human rights, and of human government to secure them, are disclosed and attempted to be realized. Here we see a people rising to a high degree of civilization and power through the influence of freedom, yet, for the want of a solid basis of religion and morality in society, finally crumbling to pieces; leaving, where a blaze of light once sent forth its illumination far and wide, but a ghastly heap of ruins.

Rome, borrowing something from Egypt and Greece, becomes a mighty empire, swallowing up all the great kingdoms around her, whether in Europe, Asia, or Africa. She grows rich on the spoils of other nations. For a time she feels the fire of liberty, but this vanishes amid the corruptions and looseness that pervade society; and, finally, gorged with conquest and bloated with wealth, she becomes the prey of the Goths and

Vandals, that come upon her, like locusts, from the north of Europe.

Though Greece and Rome have long since declined, yet many of their political institutions have come down to our times: of these we have given a brief sketch. There is much in them to admire, but they show that Christianity was still wanting to lay a sure foundation for liberty, in the responsibility of man to clear and inflexible rules of jus

tice.

The great lights of Greece and Rome having become extinct, the Arabs, or Saracens, from the seventh to the twelfth century, cultivated literature with success in Asia and Africa; but Europe continued, for this whole period, in a state of ignorance and barbarism. This is called the dark age, during which the institutions of Greece and Rome were forgotten, and those of the northern nations of Europe became partially established over this entire quarter of the globe.

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THE feudal system, so often noticed in history, appears to have existed in Europe at an early date, among the tribes that inhabited Germany. These, like the Celts who first settled France, Spain, Britain, and Ireland, doubtless came from Asia. The period of their first emigration may have been, and doubtless was, 1500 or 2000 years before Christ; but tribe after tribe continued to flow into Europe, down to the time of Rome's final overthrow by the Goths.

It is probable that the German tribes brought their feudal system of government with them; but it doubtless became much modified after its establishment in Europe. It existed among the Franks, one of those tribes; and these, making

some conquests in Gaul, under their king, Pharamond, about A. D. 420, and finally settling in that country, established it there.

From this period, the feudal system is seen extending over all parts of Europe, until, in the course of a few centuries, all the great kingdoms of Europe are founded upon it as the basis of their political institutions.

It must be remembered that these German tribes, as well as the other inhabitants of Europe, were, at the period of which we treat, chiefly addicted to war. They had flocks, and sometimes settled down, for half a century or more, in one spot, pursuing agriculture in intervals of peace. But they were, still, always looking out for some rich tribe or country which they might plunder.

In this state of things the people required bold and active leaders; those who were fond of strife, and capable of ensuring victory in their bloody enterprises. Accordingly, we find them generally under the sway of kings whose character was marked with strength and courage, mingled with skill and sagacity. The sovereigns were always assisted by chiefs, who partook of the characteristics of their leaders.

When one of these tribes conquered a country, they divided the spoils among themselves. The king took by far the largest portion; his chiefs took less, and the common soldiers a still smaller share. The lands were wholly taken by the king and his chiefs, who were called barons.

There was one condition on which these lands were held, which constituted the chief feature of the feudal system. A baron held his land upon condition that, when required by his king, he

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