are represented in Glasgow by numerous branches, and the Union Bank of Scotland and the Clydesdale Bank have their head offices here; as also have the Scottish Amicable, the City of Glasgow and other insurance companies.

Government. Municipal affairs are administered by a town council whose statutory designation is "the corporation," consisting of 111 members elected by the voters in 37 wards (numbering in cumulo 230,228), with the Dean of Guild (elected by the Merchants' House) and the Deacon-convener of the Trades (elected by the Trades' House) as ex 'officio members. The lord provost and magistrates, a river bailie and deputy river bailie, a treasurer (honorary) and a master of works (honorary) are chosen by the councillors from their own number.

History. The origin of Glasgow and its earliest community is beyond the reach of history. Joceline, the 12th century biographer of Kentigern, the patron saint of Glasgow, speaks of wandering through the streets and lanes of the city, and in the course of his narrative relates how its cemetery had been consecrated by Saint Ninian, the 5th century evangelist. More solid ground is touched in a legal document, which must have been compiled before the year 1124, setting forth the result of an inquiry made by King David, then Prince of Cumbria, into the possessions of the see of Glasgow, and from that time onward a fairly continuous outline of the city's history is obtainable. The bishops and archbishops possessed a large territory, called in later times the Regality of Glasgow, of which Glasgow was the judicial centre. In 1175-78 King William the Lion authorized the bishops to have at Glasgow a burgh, with a weekly market and all the privileges of a royal burgh. Twelve years afterward the same king granted right to the burgesses to hold a yearly fair in July, a privilege which still survives in Glasgow's annual holiday. The market cross of the new burgh occupied the spot where High street and Saltmarket intersect Trongate and Gallowgate. A chapel dedicated to the Virgin Mary adjoined the market cross, and half a mile farther west, a few paces from the present Saint Enoch's station, another chapel was dedicated to Saint Tenew, the mother of Saint Kentigern. Saint Enoch is merely a corruption of Saint Tenew which local pronunciation reduced to the form of Sanct-enew (or -enoch). Another chapel dedicated to Saint Thomas the Martyr was situated in the same locality. On the higher ground, adjoining the site chosen for the cathedral, a British fort or rath probably existed in ancient times, giving name to Rattounraw, one of the most ancient of the existing thoroughfares; and, if so, the rath may be identified with the large earthen mound called "the know of grummell," removed in 1599 to fill up hollows about the town. The rath, or what else served as a stronghold, was in or before the 13th century superseded by the Bishop's Castle, a structure which was not wholly removed till its site was required for the erection of the Royal Infirmary in 1792-94. The cathedral canons and Church dependents dwelt in the vicinity of the cathedral, while the industrial and trading community occupied the ground near the river, over which there was a primitive bridge at least as early as the year

1285. On the intervening space, somewhat precipitous, the Black Friars planted a convent and church in or before 1246. Between the years 1473 and 1479 the Greyfriars likewise settled in Glasgow, a little farther west, the site chosen by them being on the opposite side of the thoroughfare now called High street. A church or chapel in the Gallowgate, dedicated to Saint Kentigern, was founded in 1500; about the same time another chapel was dedicated to Saint Roche on a site which is commemorated in the place name now transformed into Saint Rollox; and the collegiate church of Saint Mary and Saint Ann was founded on the site of the present Tron church about the year 1525. Of the four pre-Reformation "hospitals"> and their relative chapels, viz., the Hospital of Saint John of Polmadie, founded in or before the 13th century; the Leper Hospital, of an early but also uncertain date, Saint Nicholas Hospital, founded by Bishop Muirhead (145573), and Stablegreen Hospital, founded by Roland Blacader, subdean (1503-41), only some fragmentary endowments of Saint Nicholas Hospital survive, yielding small pensions to a few aged people. Glasgow was much pervaded by the ecclesiastical element, but this was to some extent advantageous as many of the Church dignitaries were in favor at court, taking a prominent part in state affairs, and exerting their influence for the good of the citizens. At first the Reformation changes produced disorganization and loss of trade. An attempt to arrest decay in the district deserted by the clergy, by the transfer of some of the markets to that locality, proved unsuccessful, on account of difficulty of access. The earlier charters of Glasgow were granted to the bishops who had the right to elect the provost and bailies. In 1611 King James VI granted a charter to the community direct, and subsequent charters kept to that form, but it was not till 1690, after the abolition of episcopacy, that the town council were allowed to elect their chief magistrates. Many of the inhabitants of Glasgow were opposed to the union, but the municipal authorities, both at that time and during the risings of 1715 and 1745, remained loyal to the government. Following the suppression of the latter rebellion, heritable jurisdictions were abolished and the regality courts were superseded by those of the sheriff, but the city retained its position as the judicial centre of the district. Shortly after this time the deepening operations on the river Clyde, to which reference has already been made, were commenced, and the city entered more fully upon that career of successful commercial prosperity which it has since continuously maintained.

Population. The population of Glasgow has increased as follows: (1560) 4,500; (1600) 7,000; (1708) 12,766; (1763) 28.300; (1791) 66,578; (1803) 81.484; (1811) 100,749; (1841) 255,650; (1881) 511,415; (1891) 565,714; (1901) 761,709; (1911) 784,496. In 1912 the burghs of Govan, Patrick and Pollokshaws, and the districts of Cathcart, Scotstown, Shettleston and Tolcross were added to the city, which increased the population to 1,010,805. The population in 1914 was officially estimated at 1,032,228.

Bibliography. Several histories of Glasgow have been published, those of John M'Ure, printed by James Duncan who introduced type

making to Glasgow, in 1718 (1736); John Gibson (1777); Andrew Brown (1795); James Denholm (1797); and Dr. James Cleland (1816), being the earliest. Original research is well represented in the publications of_the Maitland Club and the Scottish Burgh Records Society, and the materials thus accumulated have been utilized in various works, such as Macgeorge's (Old Glasgow' (1880); M'Gregor's History of Glasgow (1881); Marwick's Historical Introduction to Glasgow Charters' (1897), and Early Glasgow' (1911): Primrose's Mediæval Glasgow' (1913). Municipal Glasgow, edited by the town clerk, Sir John Lindsay, is well equipped with valuable statistical matter and contains an excellent historical introduction by the editor (1914, reprinted 1915).

D. S. DOUGLAS,

Editorial Staff of The Americana. GLASGOW, The University of, a corporate body founded by a bull of Pope Nicholas V, dated 7 Jan. 1450-51, as a "studium generale bam in theologia et in jure canonum et civili quam in artibus et in quacunque licita facultate," with the power of creating masters and doctors, who, together with the readers and students, were to enjoy the same privileges and immunities with the University of Bologna. A body of statutes was prepared, and the university established by the bishop and chapter in the same year. The university appears at first to have had neither property nor endowment. A purse was formed of the perquisites procured from matriculations, examinations, degrees, etc., and some of the earlier members bequeathed the patronage of a few small chaplaincies; but through the zeal of its founders and the civil and ecclesiastical immunities accorded to it, the new school of learning prospered, though in circumstances so little in accordance with modern notions of educational requirements. The clergy were induced to attend by offers of exemption from taxation and residence. The lectures in theology and in canon and civil law were read at the convent of the Dominicans; but the students of arts soon became so numerous that a house was provided for their residence called the pædagogium, and regular teachers were appointed.

In 1460 James, Lord Hamilton, bequeathed to Duncan Bunch, regent of the College of Arts, and his successors, a tenement in High street, with four acres of land adjoining, for the use of said college. On this ground the classes of the university continued to meet for 410 years. In 1577 James VI prescribed rules for the government of the university, and made a considerable addition to its funds. This new charter is called e Nova Erectio. It provided for a principal to teach theology and Holy Scriptures, who was also professor of Hebrew and Syriac; and three regents, of whom one taught Greek and rhetoric; another dialectics, morals and politics, with arithmetic and geometry; the third, physiology, geography, chronology and astrology. Between this period and the Restoration the university continued to flourish, and the number of its professors increased; but at the Restoration the re-establishment of the episcopacy deprived it of a great part of its revenues, and three of its chairs fell into abeyance. After the Revolution it

continued gradually to expand the scope of its teaching, and has numbered among its professors and graduates many distinguished men. In the end of the 18th century it obtained by bequest the valuable anatomical museum, library and other collections of the famous Dr." William Hunter. Later the old buildings became quite inadequate and were sold. In 1870 new buildings at Gilmorehill, which cost over $2,000,000, were erected. In 1893 the buildings and grounds were extended by gift of North Park House and grounds for the use of women students, and Queen Margaret College, the women's department of the university, founded. Through the munificence of the Marquis of Bute, Bute Hall was built for use in university functions. Considerable additions to the university buildings were made in 1907.

was

The University of Glasgow comprises five faculties, namely, arts, science, medicine, law and theology. The oldest chairs are those of moral philosophy (1577), natural philosophy (1577), logic and rhetoric (1577), Greek (1581), divinity (1630), Latin (previous to 1637), mathematics (revived 1601). In the first 20 years of the 18th century six professorships were either originally founded or revived, namely, humanity, Oriental languages, civil law, medicine, church history, anatomy; astronomy was added in 1760.

Eighteen professorships were founded in the 19th century, including the chairs of civil engineering and naval architecture. In 1903 the chair of zoology was founded and the chair of natural history became the chair of zoology. In 1911 the chairs of clinical surgery and clinical medicine, founded in 1874, were suppressed by the establishment of the Saint Mungo chair of surgery and the Muirhead chair of medicine, and in the same year the Muirhead chair of obstetrics and gynæcology were established. The most recent foundation is the chair of Scottish history and literature, established in 1913.

The university was reconstituted by the Scottish Universities Act of 1858, and a similar revolution was effected by the act of 1889. Under the latter act the Scottish Universities Committee of the Privy Council was constituted, and exercised powers until the end of 1897, when the founding of new chairs and the making of other ordinances according to a prescribed procedure, devolved upon the University Court, consisting of the rector (popularly elected for a three-year term by the students), the principal, the lord provost of Glasgow and certain assessors, with provision for representation by the affiliated colleges. This body also acts as a court of appeal from the senate, consisting of the principal and professors, which regulates teaching and discipline. The general court is composed of the chancellor, certain ex officio members and all graduates of the university. This body composes the voters' list, and in conjunction with that of Aberdeen University is jointly represented in the House of Commons by one member. In voting for their lord rector, the students are divided into four nations: Glottiana (Lanarkshire); Transforthiana (North of the Forth); Rothseianá (Bute, Renfrew and Ayrshire); Londoniana (all other localities). M. Poincaré, the President of France, was elected lord rector in 1915.

The students in 1914-15 numbered 1,835 males (a number that was appreciably diminished owing to withdrawals for military service) and 635 women - 2,470 in all. There are numerous foundations and bursaries in connection with the university, the most famous of which are the Snell exhibitions at Oxford University, established in 1677, tenable for five years, and of an annual value of $400. The library contains over 210,000 volumes. Consult Stewart, University of Glasgow' (1891); Coutts, 'History of the University of Glasgow (1909).

GLASHAN, John Cadenhead, Canadian educator: b. Ellon, Aberdeen, Scotland, 1844. In 1853 he came to Canada with his parents and was educated at Toronto University. He was appointed teacher in the Provincial Model School, Toronto, in 1864, and later became inspector of schools in Middlesex County. In 1876 he became inspector of schools at Ottawa, in which post he remained until his retirement in, 1910. He was made Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada in 1902. He wrote an arithmetic for schools, an advanced arithmetic, and, in collaboration with G. A. Wentworth and J. A. McLellan, 'Algebraic Analysis' (1889).

GLASS, Carter, American congressman: b. Lynchburg, Va., 4 Jan. 1858. He was educated in the public and private schools, learned the printing trade and served in the mechanical department of a printing office for eight years. He became owner of the Daily News (morning) and Daily Advance (afternoon), both papers of Lynchburg. From 1899 to 1903 he was a member of the Virginia Senate. He served on the State Constitutional Convention of 1901 and was a member of the 57th Congress for the unexpired term of P. J. Otey in 1902-03. He was re-elected to the 58th and succeeding Congresses (1903-19), from the sixth district of Virginia. In 1912 he piloted successfully through the House of Representatives the banking bill, known generally as the Owen-Glass bill (q.v.). On 4 Dec. 1918, Mr. Glass was nominated by the President to succeed W. G. McAdoo as Secretary of the Treasury. nomination was confirmed by the Senate two days later.

The

GLASS, Montague (Marsden), American author: b. Manchester, England, 23 July 1877. In 1890 he came to the United States, was educated at the College of the City of New York and at New York University. He has followed literature as a profession since 1900; is a contributor to Munsey's, McClure's, Metropolitan, Short Stories, Delineator, Harper's Weekly, Success, Smart Set, Saturday Evening Post and other magazines, and is the author of 'Potash and Perlmutter' (1910); Abe and Mawruss' (1911), 'Elkin Tublimer -American' (1912); Object: Matrimony) (1912); Competitive Nephew) (1915).

GLASS. Definition and History.- Industrial art has had no more beautiful and useful material to aid its progress throughout the ages than glass, and many sciences could scarcely have existed, or could not have developed far, without its assistance. A perfect glass is surpassed in its brilliancy, pellucidity, refractiveness and colorless transparency only by

the diamond itself. Its essential and distinguishing features are its freedom from air bubbles, specks of foreign matter and striæ. It can be produced either colorless or tinted with any hue, and either transparent or opaque. Its opacity may be either partial or complete. It is smooth and shining on surface and in fracture. It retains its shining surface upon being reheated, and is capable of a high degree of polish when cold. It can be welded by contact while in a semi-molten state, and fractured instantaneously at a certain stage of manipulation by chilling. It is tenacious and elastic, and can be blown as thin as gold leaf or spun as fine as the web of silk.

As the medium for one of the world's oldest handicrafts, much that is worth saying about glass cannot be said without reviewing the operations of its ancient artificers. The volcanic erupt, obsidian, an impure semi-transparent, vitreous substance, in color varying from a greenish gray to almost black, probably served as a native material from which articles for ornament and use were fashioned by the ancients before the event-accident or incident -occurred which gave the world its artificial substitute and complement, glass. This native glass obsidian - invariably found in the neighborhood of some extinct volcano, was used by the Egyptians in the fabrication of works of art, and in some few known instances in articles of utility, but the artificial product, when once brought under control, effectually put a limit to its usefulness.

It is known that the Romans and the early Mexicans fashioned objects from obsidian, but in all probability the former used it as a variety of glass, and the latter from the fact that glass itself was unknown to them.

The period of the invention of glass cannot now be traced and how it was discovered is a matter of surmise, but of its importance there can be no question. What glass is, and what its possibilities are, no words could define more concisely than do those used by Dr. Johnson* in one of his papers to The Rambler. "Who," he says, "when he first saw the sand and ashes by casual intenseness of heat melted into a metalline form, rugged with excrescences and clouded with impurities, would have imagined that in this shapeless lump lay concealed so many conveniences of life as would in time constitute a great part of the happiness of the world? Yet by some such fortuitous liquefaction was mankind taught to procure a body at once in a high degree solid and transparent, which might admit the light of the sun and exclude the violence of the wind, which might extend the sight of the philosopher to new ranges of existence, and charm him at one time with the unbounded extent of the material creation, and at another with the endless subordination of animal life, and, what is yet of

*Though most writers upon glass have quoted this eulogy, I am not aware of any having added the fact that Dr. Johnson in his young days resided in the town of Stourbridge, Worcestershire, England, the principal seat of British glass manufacturing. With Stourbridge fire clay (for the making of glass-melting pots) at his feet, glasshouse furnaces blazing all around him, glass manufacturers, probably, for his associates, and surely their sons as his pupils (he was one of the masters of the Stourbridge grammar school), he would, in all probability, get his inspiration from local environment. J. A. S.

more importance, might supply the decay of nature and succor old age with subsidiary sight. Thus was the first artificer of glass employed, though without his own knowledge or expectation. He was facilitating and prolonging the enjoyment of light, enlarging the avenues of science, and conferring the highest and most lasting pleasures; he was enabling the student to contemplate nature, and the beauty to behold herself."

The essential constituents of glass are silica and alkali, and in accepting the authority of the ancient historian that these elements were present in the "sandy beach under Mount Carmel" and the "cargo of natron conveyed by Phoenician merchants from Egypt to Syria❞ in an unrecorded B.C. period, the camping incident, and the cooking fire accident may be accepted as contributing to the "sand and ashes, by casual intenseness of heat" being "melted into a metalline form" and giving the world a material absolutely essential to its progress.

"Rugged with excrescences and clouded with impurities" is a perfect word picture of what the first glass must have been. When and where the "shapeless lump" was first observed, who were the first artificers employed in bringing it under control, and in what manner a knowledge of its discovery and usefulness was first made known to the world may never be determined with certainty, but there is evidence in historic record favoring a division of the honors, giving Egypt and the Egyptians the world's earliest craftsmen credit for its invention and initial development, and ceding to the Phoenician merchants—the most notable "traders" among the ancients the distribution of the knowledge of its existence, of its merits and possibilities.

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Glass-blowing was practised by the Egyptians more than 4,000 years ago, and while there are gaps in the records, we have proof of its continuance during the times of the native monarchs, under the Greeks and the Romans, and again in the 7th century A.D.

Phoenician claims to the invention of glass determine very early association with the art. During the three centuries on either side of the Christian era the Phoenician merchants did much toward the expansion of the industry. Glass found among the ruins of Mycenæ suggests association with the art among the Greeks about six centuries B.C.

The Roman glass-making period covered several centuries. In early Christian times glass was made in several Eastern countries, and Pliny mentions Gaul among the Western countries practicing the art. Byzantium had its glass workers. The earliest date of which there is documentary evidence of glass-making at Venice is 1090, but once well established, the industry held a foremost place for about five centuries, declining considerably under competition from western Europe in the 18th century. Though Venetian glass production was limited in volume during the 18th century, some very important work was accomplished toward advancing the art in the higher grades, and the foundation was laid for the revival which occurred in the thirties of the following century, and has been maintained along the lines of some of its best features.

Western Europe advanced rapidly in the art of glass-making and decorating from the 16th

century on; France, Spain, the Low Countries, Germany and the British Isles all contributing. Glass-making became an established industry in the United States early in the 17th century. Russia made considerable advance in the glass industry during the latter half of last century. Canada entered the field about half a century ago. India is now making glass for some of its own requirements; and there are indications that Japan is rapidly advancing in the manufacture of several varieties of glass production.

To a question as to the form in which glass has been longest in use, the answer would probably be, the bead. To follow the history of the bead the whole range of tradition and record of glass itself would have to be traversed. Beads of the native glass obsidian were in use in Egypt before the artificial substitute was discovered, and in every glass-making period since that discovery bead production has been continued. As glass itself resulted from the "fortuitous liquefaction" of two elements, so was the bead the fortuitous result of that liquefaction, and the initial action of the first molten glass was the automatic formation of a bead, without craftsmanship, without tool of any kind.

Beads were among the very first objects adopted as personal ornaments, and cherished as "charms, and scarcely any important discovery of ancient glass has been made without beads formed some part of the find. Specimens made any time before 568 B.C. were discovered in the ruins of ancient Mycena. Fifth century history (B.C.) mentions ❝stony molten pendants" with which the ears of the sacred crocodiles of Egypt were adorned. Festoons of "bead-like gems are mentioned in connection with glass of 300 B.C. The Phoenician and Roman glassmakers made beads extensively. Glass beads of Egyptian characteristics were unearthed in 1892 during excavations at Glastonbury, England, where activities commenced about 150 B.C. were ended prior to the period of the Roman_conquest. (Consult Bulleid, A. and Gray, H. St.G., The Glastonbury Lake Village' (1911). Beadmaking was practised at Venice in its earliest glass-making days, was an important branch of the industry there in the 16th century, and by the end of the 18th over 20 furnaces were employed in producing over 500 species. To come nearer home there are records of bead production in the very earliest days of American glass-making viz., 1621, when a new glass house was built to accommodate Italian workmen - presumably Venetians in making beads, "to trade with the Indians." Such a valuable discovery as glass could not, in the hands of a clever race of craftsmen like the Egyptians, be long limited in its use to bead or pendant production. but the suggestion for bringing the material under control and making possible its development would come from the material itself. Insufficiently fused glass always contains air-bubbles, and if taken from the melting pot in this condition and allowed to stream from the gathering instrument, the glass will continue to extend its length till it is chilled to hardness, the air bubble will remain a cavity, the end of the shaft or tube formed will be in bead or pendant form, and the hollow section of the shaft will be in form for division into lengths. Thus did the first glass bead get its perforation, and thus was suggested the blowing pipe, the