The commission form of government was adopted by the city, and became operative in 1912. Pop. 5,311.

GARDINER'S ISLAND, N. Y., an island in a bay of the same name at the northeastern extremity of Long Island. It is part of the township of East Hampton, Suffolk County, and has an area of 3,300 acres, mostly undulating pasture land. It was bought from the Indians by Lion Gardiner in 1639. Captain Kidd (q.v.) buried part of his treasures on the island in 1699, but they were recovered in the same year by the colonial authorities.

GARDNER, Augustus Peabody, American congressman and soldier: b. Hamilton, Mass., Nov. 1865; d. Camp Wheeler, Va., 16 Jan. 1918. He was graduated at Harvard in 1886; was a member of the Massachusetts State senate (1899-1901), and was elected to nine congresses, from the 57th to 65th inclusive. During the Spanish-American War, he served as captain and assistant adjutant-general on staff of Gen. J. Wilson In 1913 he was Republican nominee for governor of Massachusetts. An earnest advocate of American participation in the European War, he entered the army in 1917 as colonel in the Officers Reserve Corps. He procured demotion to major, so that he might see active service sooner. He died while in training at Camp Wheeler, and was interred at the national capital.

GARDNER, Edmund Garratt, English scholar in Italian: b. London, 12 May 1869. He was educated at Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Intended for the medical profession, he soon abandoned it for the study of Italian literature and history, especially the study of Dante. He has devoted much time to research in Italian archives and libraries, and, more recently, to the investigation of mysticism and kindred subjects. He is Barlow lecturer on Dante at University College, London. His publications include 'Dante's Ten Heavens (1898); 'A Dante Primer (1900); The Story of Florence' (1900); 'Desiderio' (1902); The Story of Siena and San Gimignano (1902); Dukes and Poets in Ferrara (1904); The King of Court Poets' (1906); Saint Catherine of Siena' (1907); The Cell of Self-knowledge) (1910); 'Dante and the Mystics' (1914); The Book of Saint Bernard on the Love of God' (1916).

GARDNER, Ernest Arthur, English archæologist: b. London 1862. He was educated at Cambridge University, and was director of the British School of Archæology at Athens, 1887-95. From 1884 he has been engaged in archæological researches in Egypt, Athens, Paphos in Cyprus, Megalopolis and elsewhere, and has lectured and written much upon Greek art and archæology.

GARDNER, Eugene C., American architect; b. Ashfield, Mass., 28 March 1836; d. Springfield, Mass., 7 Feb. 1915. He was principal of the academy at Tallmadge, Ohio, 1852-62. He then removed to Northampton, Mass., where he resided 1863-68, engaged in architectural work, going to Springfield, Mass., in the latter year, editing The Builder 1885-87, and writing for the Springfield Republican. In 1901 he was elected a member of the MassaVOL. 12-19

chusetts House of Representatives. Among his works are 'Homes and How to Make Them'; 'Illustrated Homes'; 'Home Interiors'; 'The House that Jill Built'; Town and Country School Houses'; and 'Common Sense in Church Building.'

GARDNER, Henry Brayton, American educator: b. Providence, R. I., 26 March 1863. He was graduated at Brown University in 1884 and from 1884 to 1888 studied at Johns Hopkins, where he received the degree of Ph.D. in 1890. In 1888-90 he was instructor in political economy; in 1890-98, associate professor, and since 1898 professor at Brown University. He is a member of the American Economic Association, of which he was vicepresident in 1897-98, and has published 'Statistics of Municipal Finance (in publications of the American Statistical Association, New Ser., No. 6, 1889 and in publications of American Economic Association, New Ser., No. 2, 1899).

GARDNER, Percy, English archæologist: b. Hackney, Middlesex, 24 Nov. 1846. He was educated at Cambridge University, was Disney professor of archæology there in 1880 and has been professor of classical archæology at Oxford since 1887. Among his publications are 'Samos and Samian Coins' (1882); "The Types of Greek Coins' (1883); 'New Chapters in Greek History) (1892); Manual of Greek Antiquities, with Jevons (1895); 'Sculptured Tombs of Hellas' (1896); 'Exploratio Evangelica) (1899); Historic View of the New Testament (1901); ‘A Grammar of Greek Art' (1905); The Growth of Christianity) (1907) Religious Experience of Saint Paul (1911); 'Principles of Greek Art' (1913).

GARDNER, Mass., a town in Worcester County, including the villages of Gardner Centre, South Gardner and West Gardner. It is situated about 25 miles north of Worcester, on the Fitchburg division of the Boston and Maine Railroad, two branches of which pass through the town, intersecting at the station in Gardner Centre. Gardner is the trade centre of an agricultural region and has a large chair-manufacturing industry, with establishments employing about 3,000 people. Almost every known kind of chair is made here, and the products of this manufacture are shipped to all parts of the United States and to many foreign countries. The number of industrial establishments in 1914 was given in the Census Bureau's summary as 64; persons engaged in manufactures, 4,245; proprietors and firm members, 49; salaried employees, 232; wage earners, 3,964; primary horse power, 5,046; capital, $13,534,000; services, $2,447,000; salaries, $363,000; wages, $2,084,000; materials, $3,079,000; value of products, $7,450,000; value added by manufacture, $4,371,000. The town has two good parks and an excellent public library. Pop. 16,000.

GAREFOWL. See GREAT AUK.

GARFIELD, Harry Augustus, American educator and public official: b. Hiram, Portage County, Ohio, 11 Oct. 1863. He is a son of James A. Garfield, 20th President of the United States; was educated at Williams College, where he was graduated in 1885. In 1885-86 he taught Latin and Roman history at Saint

Paul's School, Concord, N. H., and practised law in Cleveland from 1888 to 1903. From 1891 to 1897 he was professor of contracts at the Law School of Western Reserve University; in 1903-08 was professor of politics at Princeton, and in the latter year was appointed president of Williams College. In 1908-09 he was presiIdent of the Cleveland Chamber of Commerce and in 1896 helped to organize the Cleveland Municipal Association, of which he was afterward president. In 1917, soon after the entrance of the United States into the World War, President Wilson appointed Mr. Garfield fuel controller. Because of the shortage of coal in the Northeastern States, especially New York City, and in Ohio, his administration of the office was severely criticized in the press, but Congressional investigation showed that the shortage was due to failure of the railroads to meet the extra demands upon them, and the situation cleared soon after Federal control of the roads was instituted, 28 Dec. 1917.

GARFIELD, James Abram, 20th President of the United States: b. Orange, Cuyahoga County, Ohio, 19 Nov. 1831; d. Elberon, N. J., 19 Sept. 1881. On his father's side he was of English Puritan descent; on his mother's, Huguenot. The father, a native of New York, settled in the "Western Reserve" in 1830 and died in 1833, leaving his widow with four small children, James being the youngest. Garfield's boyhood was passed amid the harsh but by no means destitute conditions of frontier life. He worked hard on the farm, helped in the support of the family, attended school three months each winter and read and reread every book which fell in his way. For a short time he was a driver and steersman on the Ohio Canal. Supporting himself chiefly by teaching, he studied successively at Geauga Seminary 1849, Eclectic Institute, Hiram, Ohio (now Hiram College), 1851-54, and Williams College, Mass., entering the junior class in 1854 and graduating with high honors in 1856. Returning to Ohio, he taught the classics at Hiram Institute 1856-57, and became its president 1857-59. Coincident with his teaching he studied law, was admitted to the bar in 1859 and, resigning his presidency, was elected to the Ohio State senate. The Civil War breaking out, he threw himself enthusiastically into the Northern cause, was commissioned lieutenant-colonel of the 42d Ohio and given command of a brigade, with orders to operate as an independent force in eastern Kentucky, December 1861. With a force of 1,100 men and no artillery he signally defeated 5,000 Confederates under the veteran general Humphrey Marshall, driving them from fortified positions of their own choosing, 10 Jan. 1862. For this exploit Lincoln promoted him brigadier-general. Subsequently he took part in the battle of Shiloh, in the operations around Corinth, and served with distinction on several courts-martial at Washington, one being that of Gen. Fitz-John Porter (q.v.). Appointed chief of staff to General Rosecrans, February 1863, his notable services at Chickamauga (see CHICKAMAUGA, BATTLE OF) caused Lincoln to make him a major-general, 19 Sept. 1863. In 1862 his home district had elected him to Congress. Thus, within six years he had been president of a college, State senator, majorgeneral and representative-elect, a combination

of honors without parallel in the national annals. Upon the advice of Lincoln and Stanton he resigned his major-general's commission 5 Dec. 1863 and took his seat as a representative on December 7. In this field his talents and genius found their true sphere. He stepped to the front at once, taking a prominent part in every debate of importance and becoming an authority on questions of finance, tariff, education and constitutional rights. Always the champion of sound money, his speech in March 1866 clearly outlined the policy which resulted in the resumption of specie payments 1 Jan. 1879. An eminent contemporary has well said of Garfield's speeches, that they are a compendium of the political history of the time and would give a connected history and complete defense of the important legislation of the 17 eventful years that comprised his legislative career. He was eight times re-elected to Congress, serving on such important committees as those on military affairs and on ways and means, and was the first chairman of the Committee on Banking and Currency. In the Reconstruction period he steadily opposed the theories of President Johnson (see JOHNSON, ANDREW); in 1876 he went to New Orleans at President Grant's request to watch the counting of the Louisiana vote, and in 1877 was chosen by acclamation one of the two members of the Electoral Commission allotted to the House of Representatives. In the 45th Congress Garfield displayed masterly qualities as a leader of opposition. His speech at Faneuil Hall, Boston, in 1878 on the national finances was circulated by thousands as a campaign document. On 13 Jan. 1880 the Ohio legislature unanimously elected him United States senator to succeed Hon. Allen G. Thurman (q.v.), and his last speech in Congress was delivered 23 April 1880. At the Republican National Convention at Chicago, 2-8 June 1880, he headed the Ohio delegation, nominated John Sherman (q.v.) for the Presidency, opposed the nomination of General Grant for a third term and was himself nominated on the 36th ballot as a compromise candidate. Contrary to all precedent, Garfield himself took part in the campaign that followed, making some 70 speeches in all, chiefly extemporaneous. the November election he received 214 electoral votes to 155 given his Democratic opponent, General Hancock. The first months of Garfield's administration were disturbed by the opposition of the New York senators to certain of his appointments. Senators Conkling and Platt claimed the right to control the Presidential appointments in their State. This the President refused to concede. The senators resigned and appealed to their legislature to vindicate their attitude by a re-election, but failed to get it. On the morning of 2 July 1881, while in the Baltimore and Potomac station at Washington, on his way to New England, where he intended to deliver the commencement address at Williams College, President Garfield was shot by Charles Jules Guiteau (q.v.), a disappointed office-seeker. For weeks he lingered between life and death, suffering the greatest agony but bearing it with a magnificent fortitude that won the admiration and sympathy of the civilized world. A removal to Elberon, N. J., in the hope that the sea air

At

might benefit him was of no avail. Blood poisoning set in on 15 September and he died on the 19th at 10.30 P.M. In February 1882 an impressive memorial service was held in the House of Representatives, the Hon. James G. Blaine delivering a commemorative address, which for eloquence, dignity and truth has rarely been equaled on such occasions. Garfield's body lies in a beautiful cemetery in Cleveland, Ohio, a stately monument marking the spot. His life was the fullest realization of the opportunities of American citizenship. Rising from nothing, by his own exertions he won high places in various spheres and filled them all adequately and with dignity. 'Works have been edited by Prof. B. A. Hinsdale (Boston 1882-83). Consult Hinsdale, President Garfield and Education' (Boston 1882).

His

W. N. C. Carlton, Librarian, Newberry Library, Chicago. GARFIELD, James Rudolph, American government official, son of President James A. Garfield: b. Hiram, Ohio, 17 Oct. 1865. He was graduated at Williams College in 1885; studied at the Columbia Law School and in 1888 was admitted to the bar. In 1896-99 he was a member of the Ohio senate and in 190203 was a member of the United States Civil Service Commission. From 1903 to 1907 he was commissioner of corporations of the United States Department of Commerce and Labor and in 1907 became Secretary of the Interior in President Roosevelt's Cabinet. He retired from this post on 4 March 1909; during his term of office, he effected a complete reorganization of the department and instituted many land-office reforms. Since 1909 he has been engaged in law practice at Cleveland; in 1912 he was prominent in the councils of the new Progressive party.

GARFIELD, N. J., borough of Bergen County, opposite Passaic, on the Passaic River, and on the Erie Railroad, 10 miles northwest of New York. It contains machine shops, embroidery works, knitting mills, woolen mills and stone works, and there are manufactures of wax paper, chemicals, rubber goods, paper boxes, perfumes and clothing. In 1914 there were in operation 39 establishments with an aggregate capital of $16,083,000 and employing 6,144 persons. Salaries and wages amounted to $3,113,000. The products were valued at $16,113,000, of which $4,748,000 was added by manufacture. Garfield was incorporated in 1898; the government is vested in a mayor and council. The water plant is municipally owned. Pop. 15,455.

GARFIELD MONUMENT, a monument erected as a memorial to President Garfield, in the Lakeview Cemetery at Cleveland, Ohio. See CLEVELAND.

GARGANO, gär-gä’nō (ancient Garganus), a mountainous peninsula, the "spur" of Italy, in the province of Foggia, jutting out into the Adriatic Sea, and attaining in Monte Calvo a height of nearly 4,000 feet. Bee-keeping is yet as generally engaged in as in the time of Horace. The district is visited mainly by pilgrims to a shrine of Saint Michael on Monte Saint Angelo. It is about 50 miles long and 27 miles broad.

GARGANTUA AND PANTAGRUEL (La Vie très horrifique du grand Gargantua and Pantagruel, roi des Dipsodes) is the literary monument of François Rabelais. The significance of the work for its time is likely to be misapprehended by readers grown more squeamish, even in speaking, than he was in writing or printing, of matters concerning the processes of engendure, gestation, nutrition, digestion and excretion, while they have become heedless, through long and wonted use, of those liberties in education and in the saner social, political and intellectual outlook for which our age is indebted most to Rabelais and to Erasmus among the humanists of the 16th century. In the coarseness with which he expresses a lusty animalism, Rabelais had rivals but hardly an equal. Yet in the whole of his work there is not a prurient phrase. He likens (Bk. 1, Prologue) his work to a "silene," i.e., to a little fancy box whose grotesquely ornamented lid hid some prized thing, a jewel perhaps, a spice, some healing salve. What is hidden is worth more than what appears. Let his readers "break the bone and suck out the marrow."

The dates and even the order of publication of the five books that make up the current 'Gargantua and Pantagruel' are uncertain. Book 2, the first of 'Pantagruel' was certainly in print in 1533, as was the Pantagrueline Prognostication,' a parody of the current popular almanacs. Book 1, Gargantua,' is known first in an edition of 1535. A rather commonplace chap-book, 'The Grand and inestimable chronicles of the great and enormous giant Gargantua' is at least as early as 1532. Giant Gargantua was already a familiar figure in the folklore of France. Whether these Chronicles' are by Rabelais, or whether perhaps some other earlier Gargantua' by him has left no trace, is uncertain. A new edition of Books 1 and 2 appeared in 1542, the very important Book 3 in 1546. A part of Book 4 appeared in 1547, while Rabelais was in exile, the whole of it after his restoration to royal favor in 1552. Meantime a version of the much disputed Book 5 had appeared in 1549. The current version of this Book was first printed in 1562 and not incorporated with the other four till 1567. This latter version is at least sophisticated; possibly neither is genuine.

The work changed in character as it progressed. It began as a narrative of Brobdingnagian folk-lore, with sallies of ebullient animal spirits and passages of shrewd observation and deep wisdom regarding the errors and shortcomings of the time in education and in political, social and religious life. As the work proceeds these latter elements become more and more prominent, and with the development of the character of Panurge in Book 3, it grows clearer why Coleridge should speak of "the moral elevation of Rabelais' work" and rank him "with the creative minds of the world, Shakespeare, Dante, Cervantes." Humor is the book's shell. Rabelais, with Erasmus and Hutten, killed obscurantism with laughter. But wisdom is its kernel. His insight into and sympathy with human nature, joined to his classical scholarship, shook a drowsing Europe to awakened intellectual life. Especially to be noted are the passages on education (Bk. 1; 14, 15, 21-24); those that tell of the words and