passage of the industry into the hands of individuals had commenced to be apparent as early as 1821, and while, by the middle of the century, the aggregate amount collected each year was much greater than it had been 40 years previously, the opportunities for making great fortunes in the trade had gone. A writer in Silliman's Journal (1834) gives an interesting description of the situation of the fur trade at that time. He says:

"The Northwest Company did not long enjoy the sway they had acquired over the trading regions of the Columbia. A competition, ruinous in its expenses, which had long existed between them and the Hudson's Bay Company, ended in their downfall and the ruin of most of the partners. The relict of the company became merged in the rival association, and the whole business was conducted under the name of the Hudson's Bay Company. This coalition took place in 1821. Almost all the American furs which do not belong to the Hudson's Bay Company find their way to New York and are either distributed thence for home consumption or sent to foreign markets. The Hudson's Bay Company ship their furs from their factories of York Fort and from Moose River, on Hudson Bay; their collection from Grand River, etc., they ship from Canada; and the collection from Canada goes to London. None of their furs come to the United States, except through the Indian market. The export trade of furs from the United States is chiefly to London. quantity of beaver, otter, etc., is brought annually from Santa Fe. Dressed furs for edgings, linings, caps, muffs, etc., such as squirrel, genet, fitchskins, and blue rabbit, are received from the north of Europe; also cony and hare's fur; but the largest importations are from London, where is concentrated nearly the whole of the North American fur trade."

A

As early as 1834 those who were interested in this industry began to fear that the American fur trade had commenced to decline and, even at that time, it was quite freely predicted that its downfall would be rapid. By this period there were practically no new lands to be explored. The hunters and trappers in the employ of the great fur-trading companies had gone everywhere and had slaughtered so indiscriminately that it seemed almost impossible that the fur-bearing animals should not be exterminated. It is true that now the buffalo and large deer, the bears and the puma and the otter, beaver and pekan are gone or become rare so far as their interest to the trade is concerned, but the smaller, and on the whole, more important furbearers, are about as numerous as ever, several kinds maintaining their numbers in the very midst of civilization, as does the muskrat, mink and skunk. As a matter of fact the yield of American pelts in early times was far less a year than recently. Take the muskrat, for example. The average number of skins sold on the London market between 1800 and 1850 was about 411,000; from 1850 to 1900 it was more than 2,500,000. In recent years the London sales were: 1911, 5,197,530; 1912, 5,014,921; 1913, 6,876,417; 1914, 10,488,647. In addition to this an enormous number of skins was used from year to year in the United States and Canada. The average sales of skunks increased in the same way. In 1858 London disposed of 18,255 skins; in 1878, 285,103; in 1898, 482,130; in 1908,

1,037,641; in 1909, 1,115,910; in 1910, 1,282,000; in 1911, 2,009,465; in 1912, 1,821,485; in 1913, 1,659,773. The persistence of these two, and other animals, against such a warfare is largely due to the laws that now protect them except during the breeding-season. Nevertheless the finest fur-bearers, such as the sable, marten, seaotter and silver fox have rapidly decreased in the present century.

Consult files of the Fur Trade Review, Fur News Magazine and the publications of the United States Department of Commerce and Labor, especially the consular and trade reports; also of the Canadian Commission of Conservation.

ERNEST INGERSOLL.

FÜRBRINGER, für'bring-er, Max Karl, German anatomist: b. Wittenberg 1846. He received his education at the universities of Jena and Berlin; was appointed professor at the former institution in 1888 and at the University of Heidelberg in 1901. His works have been noteworthy contributions in their special field; they include 'Die Knochen und Muckeln der Extremitäten bei den schlangenähnlichen Saurien' (1870); 'Zur vergleichenden Anatomie der Schultermuskeln und des Brustschulter apparatus (5 parts, 1872-1902); Zur Entwicklung der Amphibienniére' (1877); Untersuchungen zur Morphologie und Systematik der Vögel' (1888); Morphologische Streitfragen' (1902); Abstammung der Säugetiere' (1905).

FURETIÈRE, fü-rẹ-tyãr, Antoine, French lexicographer and litterateur: b. Paris 1619; d. there 1688. He studied law at first, followed the profession of advocate and became fiscal procurator of the Abbaye de Saint-Germain. Later he became abbé of Chalivay and prior of Pruines. In 1655 he published a volume of 'Poésias diverses'; in 1658 the 'Nouvelle allégorique ou Histoire des derniers troubles arrivés au royaume d'éloquence'; 'Voyage de Mercure (1659); the two last-named secured his admission to the Academy in 1662. Later from his pen appeared 'Fables' and 'Le Roman bourgeois, in which he depicted with extraordinary realism the manners of Paris in 1666. About this time he became intimate with Racine, Boileau, Molière and La Fontaine; with whom he collaborated in 'Le Chapelain décoiffe.' Furetière was one of the greatest satirists of his age and also the most learned. For over 40 years he labored on a Dictionnaire universel, for which in 1684 he had obtained the royal privilege. It did not appear until 1690 at Rotterdam, two years after the author's death. The Academy, which for many years had in preparation a dictionary of its own, was greatly opposed to Furetière's project and in 1685 brought about his deposition from the Academy. His dictionary had many special merits and served as a basis for the Dictionnaire de Trévoux. Consult Gosse, 'The Romance of a Dictionary (in New York Independent, 1901) and Chatelain (in Revue Universitaire, Paris 1902).

FURIES, EUMENIDES, or ERINYES, called by the Romans FURIE and DIRÆ, were Greek mythological divinities, the avengers of murder, perjury and filial ingratitude. They sprang from the drops of blood which fell from Uranus when he was mutilated by his son Kronos or Saturn. Others make them the daughters

of Acheron and Night, and of Pluto and Proserpine. Later mythologists reckon three of them and call them Alecto the unresting, Megæra the jealous, and Tisiphone the avenger. They were supposed to be the ministers of the gods and to execute their irrevocable decrees; their sphere of action consequently was both in the infernal regions, to punish condemned souls, and on the earth to rack the guilty conscience and chastise by mental torments. Eschylus, in the celebrated tragedy of the Eumenides, introduced 50 furies, and with them Horror, Terror, Paleness, Rage and Death upon the stage. These terrible beings were described as clothed in black robes, with serpents instead of hair, with fingers like claws, a whip of scorpions in one hand and a burning torch in the other, an outstretched tongue and eyes dripping with gore. They were suckers of the blood of men; when they were enraged, a venom oozed from them that spread like a leprosy-spot wherever it fell and made the ground barren. They were regarded with great dread and the Athenians hardly dared to speak their names, but called them the venerable goddesses, by a similar euphemism the name Eumenides, signifying the soothed or well-pleased goddesses, being introduced. They dwelt in the cave called after them, at the northeast corner of the Areopagus at Athens, below the seats of the judges. Erinyes, the more ancient name, signifies the hunters or persecutors of the criminal, or the angry goddesses. The sculptors represented them as beautiful hunting nymphs, whose character was indicated only by the sternness of their expression, by the torch, dagger and other similar emblems.

FURIUS, Marcus Furius Bibaculus, Roman poet: b. Cremona 103 B.C.; date of death unknown. He is classed by Quintilian along with Catullus and Horace as one of the most distinguished of the Roman satiric iambographers. From the scanty and unimportant specimens of his works transmitted to modern times, we are scarcely in a condition to form any estimate of his powers. A single senarian is quoted by Suetonius, containing an allusion to the loss of memory sustained in old age by the famous Orbilius Pupillus; and the same author has preserved two short epigrams, not remarkable for good taste or good feeling, in which Furius sneers at the poverty to which his friend, Valerius Cato, had been reduced at the close of life, as contrasted with the splendor of the villa which he had once possessed. It seems certain that he published a poem on the Gallic wars, entitled 'Pragmatia Belli Gallici.' This is known to us only from a metaphor parodied by Horace, who ridicules the obesity which distinguished Furius. Consult Bährens, 'Fragmenta Poetarum Romanorum' (Leipzig 1886); Schang, Geschichte der Römischen Litteratur (3d ed., Munich 1907); Weichert, 'Poetarum Latinorum Fragmenta'; id., 'Dissertatio de Turgido Alpino S. M. F. Bibaculo' (Meissen 1882).

FURLOUGH, the absence, with leave, of enlisted men. In the United States army the post or regimental commander may grant furloughs not to exceed one month in duration, the brigade commander for two months, the division or department commanders for three months, and the Secretary of War for longer

FURMAN, Richard, American Baptist clergyman: b. Esopus, N. Y., 1755; d. Charleston, S. C., August 1825. While he was an infant his father removed to Sumter district, S. C. His education, though obtained irregularly, became considerable, including a knowledge of Latin, Greek and Hebrew. He was converted at an early age, and soon began to preach, and at 19 was ordained pastor of the High Hills Baptist Church. On one occasion he was not allowed by the sheriff to preach in the courthouse at Camden because he was not a member of the established (Episcopal) church. At the beginning of the Revolution he actively promoted measures for removing the disabilities under which the Dissenters labored. During that struggle he became so conspicuous as a patriot that Lord Cornwallis offered a reward for his apprehension, and after a while he retired to Virginia, where Patrick Henry was a regular attendant on his ministry. In 1787 he became pastor of the First Baptist Church in Charleston, S. C., in which relation he continued for 37 years. He was a member of the convention that framed the first constitution of South Carolina, and vigorously opposed in that body the provision which excluded ministers from certain offices. In 1814 he was elected first president of the Triennial Convention of Baptists, and for several years was president of the South Carolina Baptist Convention. He published several sermons and addresses, including one commemorative of George Washington. Furman University at Greenville, S. Č., was named in his honor. Consult Sommer, Memoir of John Stanford' (New York 1835).

FURMAN UNIVERSITY, a coeducational institution in Greenville, S. C., founded in 1854 under the ausipces of the Baptist Church. Reported in 1916: Professors and instructors, 16; students, 276; volumes in the library, 8,000.

FURNACE, an apparatus wherein a vehement fire and heat may be made and maintained, as for melting glass, ores or metals, heating the boiler of a steam-engine, warming a house, firing pottery or baking bread and other such purposes. Furnaces are constructed in a great variety of ways, according to the different purposes to which they are applied. In planning furnaces the following objects are kept in view: (1) To obtain the greatest quantity of heat from a given quantity of fuel. (See FUEL). (2) To prevent the dissipation of the heat after it is produced. (3) To concentrate the heat and direct it as much as possible to the substances to be acted on. (4) To be able to regulate at pleasure the necessary degree of heat (see HEAT) and have it wholly under the operator's management.

The materials of which a furnace is constructed must be able to endure wide variations of temperature as well as the highest degree to which it may be subjected, without losing their physical or chemical constitution. Such materials are called "refractories" (q.v.).

Furnaces are hand-fired when the fuel is added from time to time by hand. There are two types of mechanical stokers - underfeed and overfeed. The former employs a steam ram which forces the fuel up from below, and is used generally in connection with forced draught: the overfeed type employs a grate which moves horizontally from the front of the furnace toward the rear, the fuel being fed from a hopper on to the front end, and the ashes and cinders passing off at the rear. The grate resembles an endless chain. The Murphy furnace has a V-shaped cross-section, with feeders along each side, at the top of the V, the grates forming the sides of the V. At the bottom is a shaft which may be revolved to remove the ashes.

In all furnace construction the effort is made to secure smokeless combustion, and many smoke-consuming devices have been invented. Most of these have been unsatisfactory, and in any event the formation of smoke in the first place shows that the problems of economical combustion have not been solved. One of the improvements has been the admission of air above the fire through the fire-door, which supplies oxygen for the consumption of the unburned gas. Steam jets have been tried for the same purpose, but their disadvantages overbalance the gains. The indirect-fired furnace, which has a separate chamber for the fire, obviates the smoke difficulty to a large extent, and, by using the chimney gases to heat the air admitted to the fire chamber, a higher degree of working heat is secured.

An air furnace is one in which the flames are urged only by the natural draught of the chimney; a blast furnace, one in which the heat is intensified by the injection of a strong current of air by artificial means; a reverberatory furnace, one in which the flames in passing to the chimney are thrown down by a lowarched roof on the objects which it is intended to expose to their action. A gas furnace is one in which gas is used for fuel.

The gas to be consumed and the air to be used in the combustion are introduced into the combustion-chamber by separate pipes or openings, preferably in parallel streams near to each other, or in opposite directions along one channel so as to mingle before entering the chamber. The fuel may be either natural gas, or what is called "producer gas" specially manufactured for the purpose; or it may be the by-product of some other industrial process, for example, the waste gases of the blast furnace. Regenerators are furnaces in which the gaseous fuel and the air to be mixed with it are heated before combustion with a view to increasing the working temperature of the furnace. The advantages of gas furnaces may be briefly summarized thus: no ashes or slag, high temperature, certainty of action and capability of exact regulation, simplification of working power, comparative cheapness and economy. The electric furnace utilizes the electric current to produce the highest temperatures used in the arts. (See COMBUSTION; ELECTRIC FURNACE; HEATING; GAS; GAS, NATURAL). Consult Clark, T. M., The Care of a House' (New York 1912); Damour, E., Industrial Furnaces' (New York 1906); Havard, F. J., Refractories and Furnaces' (New York 1912); Hays, J. W., 'Combustion and Smokeless Furnaces) (Chicago

1915); Peebles, J. C., Furnace Efficiency' (Chicago 1914).

FURNACES, Electric. See ELECTRIC FUR

NACES.

FURNACES, Metallurgical. See METAL

LURGY.

FURNEAUX, fur-no', Tobias, English navigator: b. Swilly, Plymouth, 21 Aug. 1735; d. there, 19 Sept. 1781. Entering the royal navy he saw active service in the latter part of the Seven Years' War, 1760-63. In 1766-68 he was second lieutenant to Captain Wallis of the Dolphin in a voyage around the globe. He commanded the Adventure which accompanied Captain Cook in his second voyage of discovery. On this voyage from February to May 1773 he was separated from Cook and again from October 1773 to July 1774. He pursued the objects of the expedition, however, and made the first British chart of the coasts of Tasmania where much of the nomenclature given by him survives: Cook named the islands in Bank Straits after Furneaux, also a group now known as the Low Archipelago. In 1775 Furncaux became a captain and on 28 June 1776 commanded the Syren in the attack on Charleston, S. C. Consult the life by Rev. Henry Furneaux (in 'Dictionary of Natural Biography').

FURNEAUX ISLANDS, a group in the South Pacific off Tasmania, to which colony they belong. The total area is about 1,050 square miles. The principal islands are Flinders, Cape Barren and Clarke. The inhabitants number about 700, and earn their livelihood by seal-fishing, the capture of sea-fowl, etc. The islands were discovered in 1733 by Tobias Furneaux (q.v.).

FURNESS, SIR Christopher, English ship builder and ship owner, 1ST BARON: b. West Hartlepool, 23 April 1852; d. Ripon, 10 Nov. 1912. The son of a farm laborer who became a corn merchant, he achieved his first success for the firm by shipping flour from Sweden during the Franco-German War.. In 1874 he founded the "Furness" line of steamships, which now owns nearly 100 steamers, with a total tonnage of close on 300,000 tons. He also established the great ship-building firm of Furness, Withy and Company, Hartlepool, in connection with which in 1909 he set on foot a profit-sharing scheme, which, however, was abandoned two years later at the request of the unskilled workers. He represented Hartlepool in the Liberal interest 1891-95 and 1900-10. He was knighted in 1895, and raised to the peerage in 1910.

FURNESS, Horace Howard, American Shakespearian scholar and editor; son of William Henry Furness (1802-96) (q.v.): b. Philadelphia, 2 Nov. 1833; d. 13 Aug. 1912. He was graduated at Harvard in 1854; studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1859. The honorary degree of Ph.D. was conferred on him by the University of Göttingen in recognition of his services to Shakespearian literature. He is the editor of the exhaustive New Variorum Edition of Shakespeare, the successive volumes of which appearing since 1871 include 'Romeo and Juliet' (1871); Macbeth' (1873); 'Hamlet' (2 vols., 1877); Lear' (1880); Othello' (1886); Merchant of Venice) (1888); 'As

You Like It (1890); Tempest' (1892); 'Midsummer Night's Dream' (1895); Winter's Tale' (1898); Twelfth Night' (1901); 'Love's Labor Lost' (1904); Antony and Cleopatra' (1907), and Cymbeline' (1913). He was aided in his editorial work by his wife and his son. He received honorary degrees from Columbia, Harvard and Yale, and was a member of the American Academy of Arts and Letters. The Variorum Edition' is most exhaustive, being practically the last work on the text of Shakespeare. Consult Appreciations of Horace Howard Furness' (1912).

FURNESS, William Henry, American clergyman and author: b. Boston, Mass., 20 April 1802; d. Philadelphia, 30 Jan. 1896. He was educated at Harvard; studied theology at Cambridge, Mass., and was pastor of the First Unitarian Church in Philadelphia in 1825-75. He was an earnest supporter of the anti-slavery movement and was a German scholar of eminence, translating much from the German in both prose and verse. He was radical in his religious views but made a life study of the character of Jesus, which forms the theme of several of his works. Among his numerous works are 'Remarks on the Four Gospels' (1836); Jesus and His Biographers' (1839); A History of Jesus' (1850); "Thoughts on the Life and Character of Jesus of Nazareth' (1859); The Veil Partly Lifted' (1864); Jesus (1871); 'Verses and Translations from the German Poets' (1886); 'Pastoral Offices' (1893).

FURNESS, William Henry, American artist, son of the preceding: b. Philadelphia, Pa., 21 May 1828; d. Cambridge, Mass., 4 March 1867. He very early made a reputation by the excellence of his crayon portraits, and having carned from the sale of these the means for foreign travel, studied art in Europe for two years. On his return to America he established himself as a portrait painter in Philadelphia, and subsequently in Boston, and at the time of his death was one of the foremost portrait painters in the country. Among noted portraits by him are those of his father, Dr. Furness; Charles Sumner and Lucretia Mott.

FURNESS, William Henry, American ethnologist: b. Wallingford, Pa., 18 Aug. 1866. He is a son of Horace H. Furness (q.v.), and in 1888 was graduated at Harvard University, subsequently graduating at the medical school of the University of Pennsylvania. He made scientific tours in South America and elsewhere, the results of which are embodied in several volumes from his pen. In 1904 he became secretary and curator of the Free Museum of Science and Arts of the University of Pennsylvania. He is a fellow of the Royal Geographical Society. His works include Folklore in Borneo (1899); Life in the Fuchu Islands' (1899); Home Life of the Borneo Head Hunters, its Festivals and Folklore) (1902); 'Uap, the Island of Stone Money (1910), also several monographs to the American Philosophical Society. In April 1917 he was commissioned captain in the Medical Reserve Corps.

FURNI (foor'nē) ISLANDS, a group of the Grecian Archipelago, situated between Samos and Nikaria. Furni is the largest and gives its name to the group. Its area is about

10 square miles and it is the only inhabited island. Its inhabitants are almost cut off from intercourse with the outer world.

FURNISHING GOODS. See CLOTHING AND FURNISHING TRADE.

FURNISS, Harry, English illustrator and caricaturist: b. Ireland 1854. From 1880 to 1894 he served on the staff of Punch, producing many humorous cartoons on social and political life. He started two comic journals on his own account, but the venture proved a financial failure. His numerous artistic contributions to the wide series of British and American illustrated journalism brought him international fame. As a humorous lecturer with "lightning sketches" drawn before the audience, he toured the United States and Great Britain with much success. He wrote 'Romps) (1885); Royal Academy Antics' (1890); 'P. and O. Sketches (1898); America in a Hurry (1900); Confessions of a Caricaturist' (2 vols. 1901); 'Poverty Bay) (1905); 'How to Draw in Pen and Ink' (1905); Our Lady Cinema' (1914); Political Sale Catalogue (1914). He also illustrated complete editions of Thackeray and Dickens, besides other works. In later years he wrote and acted for moving pictures.

FURNITURE, formerly all the various movable appliances or articles in the interior of a house, now more commonly applied to articles of wood or metal. The ancient Egyptians aimed to variety rather than symmetry in the arrangement of their houses. They had chairs made of the finest woods in great variety of design, covered with rich cloths or skins, and inlaid with gold or ivory. They also used folding stools, sofas, couches and carpets or rugs. Their tables were of variety of shapes and constructions. Bedsteads were made of wickerwork and sometimes of bronze. The forms

of household articles of furniture found in or represented on Assyrian monuments and remains show great artistic elaboration and a profusion of highly wrought ornament. The Assyrians were especially skilful in the chasing of metals, and they delighted in reproducing natural objects on their ornaments. The Greeks had couches covered with skins or drapery, on which several persons might lie with their bodies half raised; these were used at meal times by the men only, women and children sitting on seats; they had large armchairs with footstools, portable small chairs without arms and stools with carved legs made to fold up.

Among the Romans, Greek art gained a predominant influence, and the conquerors of the world were at all times glad to employ natives of Greece to design and execute the works intended to display the opulence of their masters. On the ornaments of the triclinia or couches on which they repose, immense sums were bestowed. They were often inlaid with precious materials, such as ivory, tortoise shell, gold and silver and had ivory or metal feet. They consisted of a framework which was strung with girths, on which rested a mattress stuffed with straw, wool or feathers, and covered with rich drapery. The lectus cubicularis, or bed, was higher than the couch, but not unlike it. The tables were generally of costly foreign wood, resting on frames of carved marble or an ivory column. The curule chairs, or seats of state of the patricians and magis