harbours; the soil is fertile in corn, and good for pasturage, but unproductive of trees. There is a scarcity of water both from rain and from land-springs. The natives are healthy, swift of foot, and able to endure fatigue. Most of them die by the gradual decay of age1, except such as perish by the sword or beasts of prey; for disease finds but few victims. Animals of a venomous nature they have in great numbers.

Concerning the original inhabitants of Africa, the settlers that afterwards joined them, and the manner in which they intermingled, I shall offer the following brief account, which, though it differs from the general opinion, is that which was interpreted to me from the Punic volumes said to have belonged to King Hiempsal2, and which the inhabitants of that country believe to be consistent with fact. For the truth of the statement, however, the writers themselves must be responsible.

XVIII. Africa, then, was originally occupied by the Getulians and Libyans, rude and uncivilised tribes, who subsisted on the flesh of wild animals, or, like cattle, on the herbage of the sail. They were controlled neither by customs, laws, nor the authority of any ruler; they wandered about, without fixed habitations, and slept in the abodes to which night drove them. But after Hercules, as the Africans think, perished in Spain, his army, which was composed of various nations, having lost its leader, and many candi

1 Most of them die by the gradual decay of age] Plerosque senectus dissolvit. "A happy expression; since the effect of old age on the bodily frame is not to break it in pieces suddenly, but to dissolve it, as it were, gradually and imperceptibly." Burnouf.

2 King Hiempsal] "This is not the prince that was murdered by Jugurtha, but the king who succeeded him; he was grandson of Masinissa, son of Gulussa, and father of Juba. After Juba was killed at Thapsus, Cæsar reduced Numidia to the condition of a province, and appointed Sallust over it, who had thus opportunities of gaining a knowledge of the country, and of consulting the books written in the language of it." Burnouf.

3 XVIII. Getulians and Libyans] Gætuli et Libyes. "See Pompon. Mel. i., 4; Plin. H. N. v., 4, 6, 8, v., 2, xxi., 13; Herod. iv., 159, 168." Gerlach. The name Gætuli, is, however, unknown to Herodotus. They lay to the south of Numidia and Mauretania. See Strabo xvii., 3. Libyes is a term applied by the Greek writers properly to the Africans of the North coast, but frequently to the inhabitants of Africa in general.

His army, which was composed of various nations] This seems to have been an amplification of the adventure of Hercules with Geryon, who was a king in

dates severally claiming the command of it, was speedily dispersed. Of its constituent troops, the Medes, Persians, and Armenians1, having sailed over into Africa, occupied the parts nearest to our sea. The Persians, however, settled more towards the ocean3, and used the inverted keels of their vessels for huts, there being no wood in the country, and no opportunity of obtaining it, either by purchase or barter, from the Spaniards; for a wide sea, and an unknown tongue, were barriers to all intercourse. These, by degrees, formed intermarriages with the Getulians; and because, from constantly trying different soils, they were perpetually shifting their abodes, they called themselves NUMIDIANS. And to this day the huts of the Numidian boors, which they call mapalia, are of an oblong shape, with curved roofs; resembling the hulls of ships.

The Medes and Armenians connected themselves with the Libyans, who dwelt near the African sea; while the Getulians lay more to the sun5, not far from the torrid heats; and Spain. But all stories that make Hercules a leader of armies appear to be equally fabulous.

1 Medes, Persians, and Armenians] De Brosses thinks that these were not real Medes, &c., but that the names were derived from certain companions of Hercules. The point is not worth discussion.

2 Our sea] The Mediterranean. See above, c. 17.

3 More towards the ocean] Intra oceanum magis. "Intra oceanum is differently explained by different commentators. Cortius, Müller, and Gerlach, understand the parts bounded by the ocean, lying close upon it, and stretching toward the west; while Langius thinks that the regions more remote from the Atlantic Ocean, and extending towards the east, are meant. But Langius did not consider that those who had inverted keels of vessels for cottages, could not have strayed far from the ocean, but must have settled in parts bordering upon it. And this is what is signified by intra oceanum. For intra aliquam rem is not always used to denote what is actually in a thing, and circumscribed by its boundaries, but what approaches towards it and reaches close to it." Kritzius. He then instances intra modum, intra legem; Hortensii scripta intra famam sunt, Quintil. xi., 3, 8. But the best example which he produces is Liv. xxv., 11: Fossa ingens ducta, et vallum intra eam erigitur. Cicero, in Verr. iii., 89, has also, he notices, the same expression, Locus intra oceanum jam nullus est,—quò non nostrorum hominum libido iniquitasque pervaserit, i. e. locus oceano conterminus. Burnouf absurdly follows Langius.

* Numidians] Numidas. The same as Nomades, or wanderers; a term applied to pastoral nations, and which, as Kritzius observes, the Africans must have had from the Greeks, perhaps those of Sicily.

5 More to the sun] Sub sole magis. I have borrowed this expression from Rose. The Getulians were more southward.

these soon built themselves towns1, as, being separated from Spain only by a strait, they proceeded to open an intercourse with its inhabitants. The name of Medes the Libyans gradually corrupted, changing it, in their barbarous tongue, into Moors2.

Of the Persians the power rapidly increased; and at length, the children, through excess of population, separating from the parents, they took possession, under the name of Numidians, of those regions bordering on Carthage which are now called Numidia. In process of time, the two parties, each assisting the other, reduced the neighbouring tribes, by force or fear, under their sway; but those who had spread towards our sea, made the greater conquests; for the Libyans are less warlike than the Getulians5. At last nearly all lower Africa was occupied by the Numidians; and all the conquered tribes were merged in the nation and name of their conquerors.

XIX. At a later period, the Phoenicians, some of whom wished to lessen their numbers at home, and others, ambitious of empire, engaged the populace, and such as were eager for change, to follow them, founded Hippo, Adrume

1 These soon built themselves towns] That is, the united Medes, Armenians, and Libyans.

2 Medes-into Moors] Mauros pro Medis. A most improbable, not to say impossible, corruption.

3 Of the Persians] Persarum. That is, of the Persians and Getulians united.

4 The two parties] Utrique. The older Numidians, and the younger, who had emigrated towards Carthage.

5 Those who had spread towards our sea-for the Libyans are less warlike than the Getulians] Magis hi, qui ad nostrum mare processerant; quia Libyes quàm Gætuli minus bellicosi. The Persians and Getulians (under the name of Numidians), and their colonists, who were more towards the Mediterranean, and were more warlike than the Libyans (who were united with the Medes and Armenians), took from them portions of their territories by conquest. This is clearly the sense, as deducible from the preceding portion of the text.

Lower Africa] Africa pars inferior. The part nearest to the sea. The ancients called the maritime parts of a country the lower parts, and the inland parts the higher, taking the notion, probably, from the course of the rivers. Lower Egypt was the part at the mouth of the Nile.

XIX. Hippo] "It is not Hippo Regius" (now called Bona) "that is meant, but another Hippo, otherwise called Diarrhytum or Zarytum, situate in Zengitana, not far from Utica. This is shown by the order in which the places are named, as has already been observed by Cortius." Kritzius.

tum, Leptis1, and other cities, on the sea-coast; which, soon growing powerful, became partly a support, and partly an honour, to their parent state. Of Carthage I think it better to be silent, than to say but little; especially as time bids me hasten to other matters.

Next to the Catabathmos2, then, which divides Egypt from Africa, the first city along the sea-coast3 is Cyrene, a colony of Theræans; after which are the two Syrtes, with Leptis between them; then the Altars of the Philæni", which the Carthaginians considered the boundary of their dominion on the side of Egypt; beyond these are the other Punic towns. The other regions, as far as Mauretania, the Numidians occupy; the Moors are nearest to Spain. To the south of Numidias, as we are informed, are the Getu-' lians, of whom some live in huts, and others lead a vagrant and less civilised life; beyond these are the Ethiopians; and farther on, regions parched by the heat of the sun.

At the time of the Jugurthine war, most of the Punic towns, and the territories which Carthage had lately possessed, were under the government of Roman prætors; a great part of the Getulians, and Numidia as far as the river Mulucha, were subject to Jugurtha; while the whole of the Moors were governed by Bocchus, a king who knew nothing of the Romans but their name, and who, before this period, was as little known to us, either in war or peace. Of Africa

1 Leptis] There were two cities of this name. Leptis Major, now Lebida, lay between the two Syrtes; Leptis Minor, now Lempta, between the smaller Syrtis and Carthage. It is the latter that is meant here, and in c. 77, 78.

2 Next to the Catabathmos] Ad Catabathmon. Ad means, on the side of the country towards the Catabathimos. "Catabathmon initium ponens Sallustius ab eo discedit." Kritzius.

3 Along the sea-coast] Secundo mari. "Si quis secundum mare pergat." Wasse.

4 Of Theræans] Theraôn. From the island of Thera, one of the Sporades, in the Ægean Sea, now called Santorin. Battus was the leader of the colony. See Herod. iv., 145; Strab. xvii., 3; Pind. Pyth. iv.

5 Two Syrtes] See c. 78.

6 Leptis] That is, Leptis Major. See above on this c.

7 Altars of the Philæni] See c. 79.

8 To the south of Numidia] Super Numidiam. "Ultra Numidiam, meridiem versus." Burnouf.

9 Had lately possessed] Novissimè habuerant. In the interval between the second and third Punic wars.

and its inhabitants I have now said all that my narrative requires.

XX. When the commissioners, after dividing the kingdom, had left Africa, and Jugurtha saw that, contrary to his apprehensions, he had obtained the object of his crimes; he then, being convinced of the truth of what he had heard from his friends at Numantia, "that all things were purchasable at Rome," and being also encouraged by the promises of those whom he had recently loaded with presents, directed his views to the domain of Adherbal. He was himself bold and warlike, while the other, at whose destruction he aimed, was quiet, unfit for arms, of a mild temper, a fit subject for injustice, and a prey to fear rather than an object of it. Jugurtha, accordingly, with a powerful force, made a sudden irruption into his dominions, took several prisoners, with cattle and other booty, set fire to the buildings, and made hostile demonstrations against several places with his cavalry. He then retreated, with all his followers, into his own kingdom, expecting that Adherbal, roused by such provocation, would avenge his wrongs by force, and thus furnish a pretext for war. But Adherbal, thinking himself unable to meet Jugurtha in the field, and relying on the friendship of the Romans more than on the Numidians, merely sent ambassadors to Jugurtha to complain of the outrage; and, although they brought back but an insolent reply, yet he resolved to endure anything rather than have recourse to war, which, when he attempted it before, had ended in his defeat. By such conduct the eagerness of Jugurtha was not at all allayed; for he had now, indeed, in imagination, possessed himself of all Adherbal's dominions. He therefore renewed hostilities, not, as before, with a predatory band, but at the head of a large army which he had collected, and openly aspired to the sovereignty of all Numidia. Wherever he marched, he ravaged the towns and the fields, drove off booty, and raised confidence in his own men and dismay among the enemy.

XXI. Adherbal, when he found that matters had arrived at such a point, that he must either abandon his dominions, or defend them by force of arms, collected an army from necessity, and advanced to meet Jugurtha. Both armies