and lastly, the offer of heart and hand to protect the honor, and defend the rights, of the fair sex. In these employments, the pupil of chivalry found a constant service; and led by a romantic love for his profession, he was ready to contend for the first place in the assaults of war,-in the defence of sworn friends, or in all honorable labors to serve his favorite lady. Knighthood contemplated these ends; and when it was administered, the condition was considered as solemnly set apart to these services. It was conferred on the field of battle, for valorous action,-on state festivals, or the occurrence of marriage in the royal family; and it constituted a brotherhood, as all its members met together on the same level, from the king to the poorest knight. Thus prepared for fulfilling their vows, the kingdoms of Europe were overspread with wandering knights in search of adventure,—or seeking to defend the rights of the feeble and the honor of the forsaken. These labors the order were pledged to perform; they became with them the cardinal virtues of life-the highest and best of all exalted actions. Society hence assumed these characteristics; a species of popular honor and gallantry became its basis,—and, together with the passion for military glory, they made up the general features of the social

state.

It was but natural that a life of so much ceremony and brilliancy of display must have its public exhibitions, to perform its rites and win the popular applause.

Tournaments were accordingly established. They were a species of mixed military and civic games, in which martial feats were achieved, and pledges of gallant prowess won. These sports were held in the open field, and on their occurrence, the barons displayed their armor, and kings dazzled the sight of their subjects with the riches and splendor of their courts. The exercises consisted in the personal encounter of rival knights, who entered the arena on horseback, and rode to furious contest with blunted spears, and encased in coats of mail. The object of each was to foil or dismount his rival. Sometimes the combat was waged between opposing companies or troops,-and then the assault was often made at the peril of life or limb. At other times, the attack was made on foot,— and then with helmed heads and battle-axe in hand, the victor must overthrow and disarm his rival. But returning in triumph to his judges, no laurel-wreath was prepared for him; no warrior's hand bestowed the badge. The lady whom he chose to honor, met him with smiles, and rewarded his valor with tinsel gifts; and these were the favors that had urged him on,-these had led him forth and strengthened his arm for the conflict. Tournaments thus became the great festivals of chivalry—thus they impressed its daring spirit upon the middle ages.

But its noblest work was the emancipation of woman from the servile slavery that had hung over her past history. This was done by the transforming power which it exerted upon the character of the times. Thus chivalry struck away another link from the lingering chain of barbarism; thus too, it gave an equality to the sexes, and balanced the social state anew. Woman appeared in a higher sphere. Whether in the camp or in the court-at the feast or in the field, she now had an influence over her companion; and that day she acquired a power for good, that was henceforth never latent and never lost. The rude fashions of society assumed a greater degree of refinement; in public, the people were more civil,—and in private life, a higher state of morals came into immediate practice. Yet

chivalry was about to assume still another feature, and under the guide of the Feudal System, it was soon to enter a broader field of labor.

Religion thus far in the middle ages had reposed in ease and indolence. Allied to power, and manifesting itself at pleasure through the arm of state-it had hitherto found little occasion to exert its influence by direct appeals to the image, nature and sympathies of the masses. Now the time had come. The foot of the infidel Saracen trod in the steps of the prophets, and the blood of believers crimsoned afresh the hill of Calvary. The religious enthusiasm of the age was aroused. The heart of all Christendom was moved. The Pope nodded his approval, and the voice of Peter the Hermit was heard through the kingdoms of Europe, preaching the first crusade to the Holy Land. Of stormy eloquence and fanatic zeal, he was the man for the time and the work. His message resounded from the hill-tops, and was repeated from the valleys;-it found an echo in winds and waves,-until every heart burned with fire-and every soul was strung for action. Thus began the most remarkable series of wars recorded in all history. The whole feudal territory, from the centre to the circumference of its extent, was shaken by the commotion, chivalry imparted its spirit-religion uttered its solemn sanctions-and soon a breathing stream of life began to set towards the rising sun. Godfrey of Bouillon was the successful leader who first reared his banner over the city of David; of the same spirit and in the same company were Robert of Normandy, Hugh of Vermandois, Raymond of Toulouse, Bohemond of Tarentum;—and with him rode Tancred, the noblest spirit of all Christian chivalry. But the cross of St. George and St. Louis triumphed for a brief time only. The next generation dawned on the success of Saladin, the Saracen. Then, Richard the lion-hearted of England, and Philip Augustus of France went forth to the rescue, with the battle-cry of "God wills it," upon their lips. Still, after two centuries of conflict, the tombs of the prophets and the sepulchre of the Saviour, remained in heathen hands. The treasures of the west had been prodigally poured out upon the east, and five millions of men slept amid the sands of Asia. Religion too, had learned a lesson of great truth; in the name of Him, who conquered only by love, the kings of Christendom had hastily seized the sword, and they had perished by the sword. The contention, however, had enabled religion to shake itself from the dust of its past degradation-it taught it, "to put not its trust in princes;" it well prepared the way for that greater conflict, which was soon to set it free forever. But we begin here to pass the limits of the middle ages-we see before us the dawning light of modern history-the sequel of this subject. It only remains under feudalism, to show the remote remnants of civil liberty, that still struggled on through all the period of its power. We have seen already, the tendency the system had taken. In France, the feudal laws came to be looked upon as encroachments upon the rights of the sovereign;-in England, as trespassing upon the privileges of the people and the result was the same in both kingdoms. It ended in casting off those laws, and in bringing society into new combinations, and under new constitutions. As it left the aspect of affairs in France, it encourages us to look for little of liberty there; but in England, the prospect was far more promising. Hence, ever after the grant of the great charter by King John, we find a strictly limited monarchy in our own fatherland. The boldest of her statesmen and the meanest of her kings,

may have risen at times against this settlement of the popular power ;but when the contest was settled, it was ever upon this foundation, and the popular rights prevailed. The old Saxon heart was made of stern stuff; and if it allowed the right of kings to reign, it did not allow them the right to rule with oppression and injustice, without a successful resistance. This firmness on the part of the people, broke up the old bounds of feudal power-it gave the people a knowledge of their own strength, and that was something they never lost. The new paths that were opened to arts, agriculture, and commerce, also added their aid to the attainment of these ends. The crusades had called for ships and for seamen,—the merchandise of the Mediterranean had brought in the wealth of the east, and the riches of Europe came gradually into the hands of merchantmen and voyagers. Wealth had changed hands,-and laws and customs, privileges and powers, must follow it. The middle class-the class of enterprise and industry, became its keepers, and hence their rising consequence in the state, as with their sanction, the government was irresistible; without them, it must fall by its own weight. Occupying this integral point in political affairs, we see the causes of that constant jealousy which they were accustomed to fall by for the safety of their civil rights.

Froissart, the famous chronicler of the olden time, gives us a picture of this popular feeling, as it existed in the times of Edward III. A crazy priest, as he says, in the county of Kent, called John Ball, was accustomed to meet the people on their return from church, and say to them : "My good friends, things cannot go on well in England until everything shall be in common; when there shall be neither lord nor vassal, and all distinctions leveled; when the lords shall be no more masters than ourselves. How ill they have used us! and for what reason do they thus hold us in bondage? Are we not all descendants from the same parents, Adam and Eve? And what can they show, or what reasons give, why they should be any more masters than ourselves? except, perhaps, in making us labor and work for them to spend. They are clothed in velvets and rich stuffs, ornamented with ermine and other furs, while we are forced to wear poor cloth. They have wines, spices, and fine bread, when we have only rye and the refuse of the straw. They have handsome seats and manors, when we must brave the wind and rain in our labors in the field; but it is from our labor that they have wherewith to support their pomp-we are called slaves, and if we do not perform our services, we are beaten, and we have not any sovereign to whom we can complain, or who will hear us and do us justice. Let us go to the king, who is young, and remonstrate with him on our servitude, telling him we must have it otherwise, or we shall find a remedy for it ourselves." For these and the like speeches, he was much beloved by the people, and they were accustomed to say-" John Ball preaches such and such things, and he speaks truth."

These sentiments of the crazy priest, although so repulsive to the haughty heart of royalty, have since done their work in the world-they have formed the basis of every genuine reform in government down to the present day-they are the same sentiments which a subsequent age embodied in the broad principles of American liberty. Through dangers and defeats-through perils and persecutions, they have still held on their way. As we see them feebly struggling up from among the poor peasantry of England on the one hand, on the other we behold the departing

footsteps of all feudal doctrines and divisions in society. The baron lost his military vassals, the king was compelled to leave legislation to his parliament.

The last of the feudal forces in England, was the most gifted, the most glorious body of men that ever trod her soil. It was commanded by Fairfax; it was graced by the presence-it was honored by the talents, and adorned by the virtues, of the justly lamented John Hampden-it was finally led to victory and to empire by the world-renowned Oliver Cromwell, before whose genius and statesmanship the history of England's past and present sovereigns is as the history of little children.

But the commonwealth appeared before its time-it passed away with the life of its master-spirit-and the corrupt Charles and his court came, with the sad story of his father before him. This puerile prince saw that his safety lay in an army of mercenaries, who had hands to fight, but not heads to think. At his command, the feudal forces of the Protector rolled back into the ranks of private life, and never more appeared in the wars of England.

Simultaneously with this event, finally fell the fabric of the feudal system throughout Europe. The arms of chivalry were rusting from neglect-knighthood had lost its charm-the cavalier cast off his clothing of steel and became a man-and the minstrel could only sing legends of the past.

Thus passed the period of the middle ages. At its close, the vices of feudalism died, or they lived only in a lingering death; its virtues can never die—they survive in those systems of a federative state which have been re-written in the constitutions of free governments, and are now so rapidly rolling round the world. So steals the stream of time away. Thus, in human affairs, as in quick nature, nothing effete and lifeless remains. The evil vanishes, and what element of good it contained enters into new forms and living combinations; while the good is gathered into golden sheaves, and its precious seed shall be scattered again for a more abundant harvest. Thus, too, the Feudal System, like a mighty river, has mingled itself in the vast ocean of the past-its sounding surges have reached the present, and are still rolling on towards the unknown future. It is this linked connection of all ages-it is the fact that one age arises out of another in a series of ceaseless succession-that makes the past and its events precious unto us.

May we so read its pages and ponder its lessons, as more clearly to apprehend our own destiny and duty; and may the wisdom which it imparts be shown in our actions and adorn the history of our lives.

G. W. G.

SKETCH FROM THE LIFE.

BY DUDLEY PERKINS, LL.D.

Of all the miserable drudges living,
There's one who's called respectable; but oh!
A mere machine-high-pressure, never low
Is he, who through his knotty brain is sieving
'News' for a daily paper-copy-clipping-

Romantic murders cutting down to facts-
Chasing up strangers and their stranger acts,

And into every body's business dipping;
Always in haste, at breakfast, dinner, supper,
Swallowing as quick as he throws 'copy' out:
His right-hand is a perfect 'item' scupper,
Be it for levee' or a pint of stout-
Of all the wretched souls existent,
It is, good lord! an EDITOR'S ASSISTANT.

FINANCIAL AND COMMERCIAL REVIEW.

THERE is a continued abundance of money in the market, with every prospect that the usual course of business will produce the customary result,—viz., a growing abundance towards January. When the crops first begin to come down, money is in demand; but as the supplies reach market and find sale, the funds employed in its transfer revert to the great reservoirs, and seek other employments. When capital is in excess of the regular calls of business, speculation is usually generated; but both here and in England money has for a length of time been abundant, without producing that customary result. What direction the next speculation fever may take, it is difficult to determine; but some decided movement may be reasonably looked for during the ensuing winter and spring.

The continued production of gold in California, and the receipt here, is gradually creating that superfluity of coin which must result in an increased export of the metals. The following table shows from the mint returns, the receipts and coinage of California gold:

With the amount received at New-Orleans, the total to the 30th of September, is $31,000,000. The amount which arrived in October, was larger than for September. It will be observed that from the first arrivals the increase has been progressive, and for the last quarter the amount is 35 per cent. of the whole sum. It is also the case that in the present year over $4,000,000 more has been received than has been coined, through the incapacity of the Philadelphia mint. This inconvenience will be monthly enhanced, to the great detriment of the general interests of the country. The import and export of specie at the port of New-York for the years ending September 30th, have been as follows:

This gives an excess for four years of some three millions imported as per custom-house returns, and about twenty-four millions per immigrants. The amount in New-York city is as follows, as compared with former returns: