CHAP. XLIV.

ON MAGNETISM.

SECTION 1.

General Remarks on the Theory and Parts of Magnetism. THE theory of magnetism bears a very strong resemblance to that of electricity, and it must therefore be placed near it in a system of natural philosophy. We have seen the electric fluid not only exerting attractions and repulsions, and causing a peculiar distri bution of neighbouring portions of a fluid similar to itself, but also excited in one body, and transferred to another, in such a manner as to be perceptible to the senses, or at least to cause sen. sible effects, in its passage. The attraction and repulsion, and the peculiar distribution of the neighbouring fluid, are found in the phenomena of magnetism; but we do not perceive that there is ever any actual excitation, or any perceptible transfer of the magnetic fluid from one body to another distinct body; and it has also this striking peculiarity, that metallic iron is very nearly, if not absolutely, the only substance capable of exhibiting any indications of its presence or activity.

For explaining the phenomena of magnetism, we suppose the particles of a peculiar fluid to repel each other, and to attract the particles of metallic iron with equal forces, diminishing as the square of the distance increases ? and the particles of such iron must also be imagined to repel each other, in a similar manner. Iron and steel, when soft, are conductors of the magnetic fluid, and become less and less pervious to it as their hardness increases. The ground work of this theory is due to Mr. Aepinus, but the forces have been more particularly investigated by Coulomb and others. There are the same objections to these hypotheses as to those which constitute the theory of electricity, if considered as original and fundamental properties of matter: and it is additionally difficult

to imagine, why iron, and iron only, whether apparently magne. tic or not, should repel similar particles of iron with a peculiar force, which happens to be precisely a balance to the attraction of the magnetic fluid for iron. This is obviously improbable; but the hypotheses are still of great utility in assisting us to generalize, and to retain in memory, a number of particular facts which would otherwise be insulated. The doctrine of the circulation of streams of the magnetic fluid has been justly and universally abandoned, and some other theories, much more ingenious and more probable, for instance that of Mr. Prévost, appears to be too complicated, and too little supported by facts, to require much of our attention.

The distinction between conductors and non-conductors is, with respect to the electric fluid, irregular and intricate; but in magnetism, the softness or hardness of the iron or steel constitutes the only difference. Heat, as softening iron, must consequently ren. der it a conductor; even the heat of boiling water affects it in a certain degree, although it can scarcely be supposed to alter its temper; but the effect of a moderate heat is not so considerable in magnetism as in electricity. A strong degree of heat appears, from the experiments of Gilbert, and of Mr. Cavallo, to destroy completely all magnetic action.

It is perfectly certain that magnetic affects are produced by quantities of iron incapable of being detected either by their weight or by any chemical tests. Mr. Cavallo found that a few particles of steel, adhering to a hone, on which the point of a needle was slightly rubbed, imparted to it magnetic properties; and Mr. Cou. lomb has observed that there are scarcely any bodies in nature which do not exhibit some marks of being subjected to the influence of magnetism, although its force is always proportional to the quan. tity of iron which they contain, as far as that quantity can be ascer tained; a single grain being sufficient to make 20 pounds of ano. ther metal sensibly magnetic. A combination with a large proportion of oxygen deprives iron of the whole or the greater part of its magnetic properties; finery cinder is still considerably magnetic, but the more perfect oxids and the salts of iron only in a slight degree; it is also said that antimony renders iron incapable of being attracted by the magnet. Nickel, when freed from arse. nic and from cobalt, is decidedly magnetic, and the more so as it contains less iron. Some of the older chemists supposed nickel to

be a compound metal containing iron, and we may still venture to assume this opinion as a magnetical hypothesis. There is in. deed no way of demonstrating that it is impossible for two sub. stances to be so united as to be incapable of separation by the art of the chemist; had nickel been as dense as platina, or as light as cork, we could not have supposed that it contained any consider. able quantity of iron, but in fact the specific gravity of these me. tals is very nearly the same, and nickel is never found in nature but in the neighbourhood of iron; we may therefore suspect, with some reason, that the hypothesis of the existence of iron in nickel may be even chemically true. The aurora borealis is certainly in some measure a magnetical phenomenon, and if iron were the only substance capable of exhibiting magnetic effects, it would follow that some ferruginous particles must exist in the upper regions of the atmosphere. The light usually attending this magnetical meteor may possibly be derived from electricity, which may be the imme. diate cause of a change of the distribution of the magnetic fluid, contained in the ferruginous vapours, that are imagined to float in the air.

We are still less capable of distinguishing with certainty in magnetism, than in electricity, a positive from a negative state, or a real redundancy of the fluid from a deficiency. The north pole of a magnet may be considered as the part in which the magnetic fluid is either redundant or deficient, provided that the south pole be understood in a contrary sense: thus, if the north pole of a magnet be supposed to be positively charged, the south pole must be ima. gined to be negative; and in hard iron or steel these poles may be considered as unchangeable.

A north pole, therefore, always repels a north pole, and attracts a south pole. And in a neutral piece of soft iron, near to the north pole of a magnet, the fluid becomes so distributed by induc. tion, as to form a temporary south pole next to the magnet, and the whole piece is of course attracted, from the greater proximity of the attracting pole. If the bar is sufficiently soft, and not too long, the remoter end becomes a north pole, and the whole bar a perfect temporary magnet. But when the bar is of hard steel, the state of induction is imperfect, from the resistance opposed to the motion of the fluid; hence the attraction is less powerful, and an opposite pole is formed, at a certain distance, within the bar; and beyond

beyond this another pole, similar to the first; the alternation being sometimes repeated more than once. The distribution of the fluid within the magnet is also affected by the neighbourhood of a piece of soft iron, the north pole becoming more powerful by the vicinity of the new south pole, and the south pole being conse quently strengthened in a certain degree; so that the attractive power of the whole magnet is increased by the proximity of the iron. A weak magnet is capable of receiving a temporary induc. tion of a contrary magnetism from the action of a more powerful one, its north pole becoming a south pole on the approach of a stronger north pole; but the original south pole still retains its situation at the opposite end, and restores the magnet nearly to its original condition, after the removal of the disturbing cause.

The polarity of magnets, or their disposition to assume a certain direction, is of still greater importance than their attractive power. If a small magnet, or simply a soft wire, be poised on a centre, it will arrange itself in such a direction, as will produce an equili brium of the attractions and repulsions of the poles of a larger magnet; being a tangent to a certain oval figure, passing through those poles, of which the properties have been calculated by various mathematicians. This polarity may easily be imitated by electricity; a suspended wire being brought near to the ends of a positive and negative conductor, which are placed parallel to each other, as in Nairne's electrical machine, its position is perfectly similar to that of a needle attracted by a magnet, of which those conductors represent the poles.

The same effect is observable in iron filings placed near a magnet, and they adhere to each other in curved lines, by virtue of their induced magnetism, the north pole of each particle being attached to the south pole of the particle next it. This arrangement may be seen by placing the filings either on clean mercury, or on any surface that can be agitated; and it may be imitated by strewing powder on a plate of glass, supported by two balls, which are contrarily electrified.

The polarity of a needle may often be observed when it exhibits no sensible attraction or repulsion as a whole; and this may easily be understood by considering that when one end of the needle is repelled from a given point, and the other is attracted towards it, the two forces, if equal, will tend to turn it round its centre, but

will

will wholly destroy each other's effects with respect to any progressive motion of the whole needle. Thus, when the end of a magnet is placed under a surface on which iron filings are spread, and the surface is shaken, so as to leave the particles for a moment in the air, they are not drawn sensibly towards the magnet, but their ends, which are nearest to the point over the magnet, are turned a little downwards, so that they strike the paper further and fur. ther from the magnet, and then fall outwards, as if they were repelled by it.

The magnets, which we have hitherto considered, are such as have a simple and well determined form; but the great compound magnet, which directs the mariner's compass, and which appears to consist principally of the metallic and slightly oxidated iron, contained in the internal parts of the earth, is probably of a far more intricate structure, and we can only judge of its nature from the various phænomena derived from its influence.

The accumulation and the deficiency of the magnetic fluid, which determine the place of the poles of this magnet, are probably in fact considerably diffused, but they may generally be imagined, without much error in the result, to centre in two points, one of them nearer to the north pole of the earth, the other to the south pole. In consequence of their attractions and repulsions, a needle whether previously magnetic or not, assumes always, if freely poised, the direction necessary for its equilibrium; which, in various parts of the globe, is variously inclined to the meridian and to the horizon. Hence arises the use of the compass in navigation and in surveying a needle, which is poised with a liberty of hori zontal motion, assuming the direction of the magnetic meridian, which for a certain time remains almost invariable for the same place; and a similar property is also observable in the dipping needle, which is moveable only in a vertical plane; for when this plane is placed in the magnetic meridian, the needle acquires an inclination to the horizon, which varies according to the situation of the place with respect to the magnetic poles.

The natural polarity of the needle may be in some measure illustrated by inclosing an artificial magnet in a globe; the direction of a small needle, suspended over any part of its surface, being determined by the position of the poles of the magnet, in