XVIII. Our wonder may well be transferred from ages to cities. One city in Attica was distinguished in eloquence for a greater number of years, and for more achievements in it, than all the rest of Greece; so that, though the natives of that country were dispersed through its different states, we might suppose its genius to have been confined entirely within the walls of Athens. Nor do I more wonder that this should have been the case, than that not a single orator of Argos, Thebes, or Lacedæmon, was thought worthy of notice during his life, or of remembrance after his death. In such studies, these, as well as many other cities, were wholly unproductive, except that the single muse of Pindar conferred some degree of lustre on Thebes. Alcman1 the Lacedæmonians falsely claim.

*

1 XVIII. Alcman] He was a native of Lydia, and brought to Lacedæmon when very young, as a slave.

BOOK II.

THE ARGUMENT.

DECLENSION of Roman virtue after the destruction of Carthage; wars with Viriathus and Numantia, I. Acts and death of Tiberius Gracchus, II., III. Aristonicus defeated; Numantia overthrown; character and death of Publius Scipio, IV. Acts of Aulus Brutus in Spain, V. Proceedings and death of Caius Gracchus, VI. Cruelty of Opimius, VII. Narbo Martius founded; Cato condemned for extortion; triumphs of the Metelli and Minutius, VIII. Eminent Roman orators and writers, IX. Severity of the censors; family of the Domitii, X. The Jugurthine war; the acts of Marius, XI., XII. Illfortune and death of Drusus, XIII., XIV. The colony of Carthage; the Italian war, XV., XVI. The civic franchise granted to the Italians; character of Sylla, XVII. War with Mithridates commenced; acts of Sulpicius, XVIII. Civil war between Marius and Sylla, XIX. The consul Pompeius murdered by the soldiers; proceedings of Cinna, XX. Cinna succeeds in recalling Marius, XXI. Marius's proscription, XXII. Marius's death; success of Sylla against Mithridates, XXIII. Deaths of Fimbria, Lucilius, and Cinna, XXIV. Further proceedings of Sylla, XXV., XXVI. Fate of Pontius Telesinus, and of the younger Marius, XXVII. Sylla's dictatorship and proscription, XXVIII. Character of Pompey, afterwards called the Great, XXIX. Death of Sertorius; triumphs of Metellus and Pompey; war with Spartacus, XXX. Pompey suppresses the pirates, XXXI., XXXII. Pompey receives the command of the Mithridatic war; acts of Lucullus, XXXIII. Conquest of Crete; conspiracy of Catiline, XXXIV. Character of Cato; deaths of Catiline and the other conspirators, XXXV. Augustus Cæsar born; learned men of that age, XXXVI. Tigranes surrenders to Pompey, XXXVII. Names of Roman provinces, and by whom conquered, XXXVIII., XXXIX. Pompey conquers Mithridates, and triumphs, XL. Descent, character, and actions of Julius Cæsar, XLI.-XLIII. First Triumvirate; consulship of Cæsar, XLIV. Of Clodius, Cicero, and Cato, XLV. Cæsar's acts in Gaul; Crassus killed in Parthia, XLVI. Further proceedings of Cæsar; Clodius slain by Milo, XLVII. Civil war between Cæsar and Pompey, XLVIII.-LII. Death of Pompey, LIII. Cæsar's actions in Egypt, Africa, and Spain, LIV., LV. Cæsar's triumphs and death, LVL, LVII. Proceedings of Brutus and Cicero, LVIII. Opening of Cæsar's will; family and character of Augustus, LIX. Dissensions and war between Cæsar and Antony, LX., LXI. Provinces decreed to Brutus and Cassius by the senate; Cæsar slighted, LXII. Antony joins the army of Lepidus, LXIII. Death of Decimus Brutus; banishment of Cicero, LXIV. The second Triumvirate, LXV. Another proscription; death of Cicero, LXVI. Conduct of the Romans at the time of the proscription, LXVII. Of Cælius and Milo; of the clemency of Cæsar, LXVIII. Of Dolabella, Vatinius, and the Pædian law, LXIX. Proceedings of Brutus and Cassius; they are slain in the battle of Philippi, LXX. Consequences of the battle, LXXI., LXXII. Of Sextus Pompeius,

LXXIII. Of Antony, Cæsar, and Livia, LXXIV., LXXV. Of Caius Velleius and Fulvia; peace between Cæsar and Antony, LXXVI. Peace with Sextus Pompeius, LXXVII. Antony marries Octavia, Cæsar's sister; Labienus overthrown, LXXVIII. War resumed with Sextus Pompeius; Cæsar marries Livia, LXXIX. Degradation of Lepidus, LXXX. Cæsar suppresses a mutiny in the army, LXXXI. Antony invades Parthia, LXXXII. Of Plancus, LXXXIII. Battle of Actium, and what immediately followed it, LXXXIV.— LXXXVI. Death of Antony, LXXXVII. Conspiracy, death, and character of Lepidus, LXXXVIII. Cæsar's triumphs and plans of government, LXXXIX. Reduction of Spain and Dalmatia, XC. Roman ensigns recovered from the Parthians, XCI. Of Sentius Saturninus, XCII. Of Marcellus and Agrippa, XCIII. Expeditions of Tiberius and Drusus; death of Drusus, XCIV.— XCVII. The Thracian war, XCVIII. Tiberius retires to Rhodes, XCIX. Hostilities resumed in Parthia and Germany; excesses of Julia, C. Caius Cæsar in Parthia; his death, CI., CII. Tiberius and Agrippa adopted by Augustus, CIII., CIV. Acts of Tiberius in Germany, CV.-CIX. Insurrection in Dalmatia, CX. Proceedings of Tiberius against the Dalmatians and Pannonians; both are subdued, CXI.-CXV. Of some who were distinguished in this war, CXVI. Loss of the legions in Germany under Varus, CXVII. Of Arminius; death of Varus, CXVIII., CXIX. Tiberius conducts the German war; his triumphs, CXX.-CXXII. Death of Augustus, CXXIII. Tiberius succeeds him, CXXIV. Mutiny in Germany and Illyricum suppressed, CXXV. Government of Tiberius, CXXVI. Of Sejanus, CXXVII., CXXVIII. Observations on Tiberius, CXXIX., CXXX. Prayer for the prosperity of Rome, CXXXI.

I. The former Scipio had opened for the Romans the way to power; the latter1 opened that to luxury. For when their dread of Carthage was at an end, and their rival in empire was removed, the nation, deserting the cause of virtue, went over, not gradually, but with precipitation, to that of vice; the old rules of conduct were renounced, and new introduced; and the people turned themselves from activity to slumber, from arms to pleasure, from business to idleness. Then it was that Scipio built porticos on the Capitol; that Metellus erected those before mentioned2; and that Cnæus Octavius raised that pre-eminently delightful one in the Circus; and private luxury soon followed public magnificence.

There soon succeeded a lamentable and disgraceful war in Spain, conducted by Viriathus, a captain of banditti; which,

1 I. The former Scipio-the latter] The former was Scipio Africanus Major, the conqueror of Hannibal; the latter Scipio Africanus Minor, who destroyed Carthage and Numantia, and who is mentioned above, i., 15.

2 Before mentioned] See i., 2.

though it proceeded with various changes of fortune, was oftener adverse than favourable to the Romans. And Viriathus, rather through the treachery than valour of Servilius Cæpio, being killed, a still more violent war with Numantia burst forth. This city never had under arms more than ten thousand of its inhabitants, yet, whether from the obstinacy of their spirit, the inexperience of our generals, or the caprice of fortune, it compelled both Pompeius, a man of great reputation, (the first of the name who held the consulship,) to sign a treaty of peace on most dishonourable terms, and the consul Mancinus Hostilius to make another not less mean and disgraceful. Interest secured Pompey from punishment; but the modesty of Mancinus, by shrinking from no penalty1, led to his being surrendered by heralds to the enemy, stripped of his robes, and with his hands tied behind his back. But the Numantines, acting like the people of Caudium in former times, refused to receive him, saying that a public violation of faith was not to be expiated by the blood of an individual.

II. This surrender of Mancinus excited violent dissensions in the state. For Tiberius Gracchus, (son of a most illustrious and eminent citizen, and grandson, on his mother's side, of Publius Africanus,) who had been quæstor at the time, and by whose encouragement that treaty had been concluded, was both grievously offended at the annulling of it, and entertained apprehensions for himself of a similar sentence or punishment; from which causes, though in his other conduct a man of the strictest integrity, endowed with the highest abilities, and pure and upright in his intentions, in short, adorned with every virtue of which man when perfected both by nature and cultivation is susceptible, he, on being appointed tribune of the people in the consulate of Publius Mutius Scævola and Lucius Calpurnius, a hundred and sixty-two years ago, deserted the worthy party, and by promising the rights of citizens to all the inhabitants of Italy, and proposing at the same time agrarian laws, threw all things, while all men were eager to secure a footing in the

1 Shrinking from no penalty, &c.] Non recusando perduxit huc, &c. The text is here so obscure that Ruhnken says, "Ego nihil hic intelligo," and supposes that some words are lost. On Caudium, see Florus, i., 16.

statel, into the utmost confusion, and brought the Commonwealth into imminent danger, of which it was for some time doubtful what would be the event. Octavius, one of his colleagues, who stood up in defence of the public good, he compelled to resign his office, and procured the election of himself, his father-in-law Appius, who had been consul, and his brother Gracchus, then very young, as commissioners to distribute lands, and settle colonies.

nus;

III. On this, Publius Scipio Nasica, grandson of him who had been pronounced by the senate the best man in the state, son of him who in his censorship had built the porticos to the Capitol, and great grandson of Cnæus Scipio, a man of very illustrious character, uncle of Publius Africathis Scipio, I say, though not invested with any military or public office, and though he was cousin to Tiberius Gracchus, yet, preferring his country to family connexion, and considering whatever injured the public as hurtful to each individual, (for which merits he was afterwards, in his absence, created chief pontiff; the first instance of the kind,) wrapped the lappet of his gown round his left arm, and mounted to the upper part of the Capitol; where, standing on the summit of the steps, he called on all that desired the safety of the Commonwealth to follow him. Immediately the chief of the nobility, the senate, the greater and better part of the equestrian body, and such plebeians as were unallured by the pernicious views of the Gracchi, rushed together against Gracchus, who, with some bands of his partisans, was standing in the court, haranguing a concourse of people from almost every part of Italy. Betaking himself to flight, he was struck, as he was running down the descent from the Capitol, with a piece of a broken bench, and thus prematurely closed a life which he might have passed with

1 II. All men were eager to secure a footing in the state] Omnibus statum concupiscentibus. Such is the way in which Krause and Orellius understand this phrase. Lipsius said that there was no sense in it, and conjectured omnibus (sc. legibus istis agrariis) statum concutientibus, which Gruter and Heinsius approved, and Ruhnken admitted into his text. But concupiscentibus seems to have been too hastily condemned by these critics. "Statum habere." says Krause, "est vel civitatem, vel bona certa, agros scilicet, habere, et sic esse aliquid in republicâ." So, he adds, the proscribed are said, c. 72, nullum statum habere.