Basel, and made a triumphal entry into Rome; but when Anno, archbishop of Cologne, had taken on himself the regency (1062), the general endeavor to weaken the royalty led the German potentates to take Alexander II.'s side. Honorius II. was forsaken.13 Alexander was able to appear even in Germany, hierarchically ruling as none of his predecessors had done." After Alexander's death (1073), Hildebrand himself assumed the papal dignity, under the name of Gregory VII., to begin the great struggle of the papacy with the imperial power for the mastery.16 summo Pontifice interpellaverunt. Qui ad se convocatis omnibus Italiae Episcopis generalique conventu Basileae habito, eadem imposita corona Patricias Romanorum appellatus est. Deinde cum communi consilio omnium Parmensem Episcopum-elegit Pontificem. At this council at Basel also took place what Petrus Damiani Discept. synodalis (Opp. iii. p. 31), makes the defensor Rom. Ecclesiae relate: Rectores aulae regiae cum nonnullis-Episcopis conspirantes contra Romam Ecclesiam concilium collegistis, quo Papam (Nicolaum) quasi per synodalem sententiam condemnastis, et omnia quae ab eo fuerant statuta cassare incredibili prosus audacia praesumpsistis. In quo nimirum non dicam judicio, sed praejudicio idipsum quoque privilegium, quod Regi praedictus Papa contulerat-vacaastis. Those in favor of the kingly power asserted, according to Bonizo, p. 807: Eorum Dominum, ut heredem regni, ita heredem fore patriciatus, so that no particular papal investiture of the latter was needed. Comp. Stenzel's Gesch. Deutschlands unter den fränk. Kaisern i. 203. Annales Allahenses von W. Giesebrecht, S. 156. J. Voigt's Hildebrand, S. 54. 13 At the synod at Augsburg (Oct. 1062) for which Peter wrote the Disceptatio synodalis inter Regis Advocatum et Romanae Ecclesiae defensorem (Opp. iii. 25, ap. Baron. ann. 1062, note 22, ss., Mansi, xix. 1001), in which the relations of that time, and different views, are well explained. At the synod of Mantua (1064, see Annales Altah. v. Giesebrecht, S. 183) Alexander was generally acknowledged. Honorius remained confined to Parma, but never renounced his claims († 1072). 14 He refused Henry IV.'s request for a divorce, by his legate Petrus Damiani (Lam berti Annales ad ann. 1069, ap. Pertz, vii. 174), then he summoned the archbishops of Mainz and Cologne and the bishop of Bamberg to Rome to answer for simony (Lambertus ad ann. 1070). 15 Lambertus ad ann. 1073, ap. Pertz, vii. 194 :-Alexander Papa-decessit. Cui Romani protinus inconsulto Rege successorem elegerunt Hildebrandum.—Is quoniam zelo Dei ferventissimus erat, Episcopi Galliarum protinus grandi scrupulo permoveri coeperunt, ne vir vehementis ingenii et acris erga Deum fidei districtius eos pro negligentiis suis quandoque discuteret. Atque ideo communibus omnes consiliis Regem adorti, orabant, ut electionem, quae ejus injussu facta fuerat, irritam fore decerneret; asserentes, quod nisi impetum hominis praevenire maturaret, malum hoc non in alium gravius quam in ipsum Regem redundaturum esset. On this account, Henry sent Count Eberhard to Rome. Hildebrand declared to him, se Deo teste honoris hujus apicem nunquam per ambitionem affectasse, sed electum se a Romanis, et violenter sibi impositam fuisse ecclesiastici regiminis necessitatem: cogi tamen nullo modo potuisse, ut ordinari se permitteret, donec in electionem suam tam Regem quam principes Teutonici regni consensisse certa legatione cognosceret; hac ratione distulisse adhuc ordinationem suam, et sine dubio dilaturum, donec sibi voluntatem Regis certus inde veniens nuncius intimaret. Hoc ubi Regi est renunciatum, libenter suscepit satisfactionem, et laetissimo suffragio ut ordinaretur mandavit. 16 How completely every thing had hitherto bowed beneath the overbearing spirit of Hildebrand is seen from Petrus Damiani's epigrams († 1072), de Papa et Hildebrando (apBaron. ann. 1061, no. 34 and 35): SECOND CHAPTER. HISTORY OF THE EPISCOPAL HIERARCHY. § 24. RELATIONS OF THE PRELATES TO THE SECULAR POWER. Planck's Gesch. d. kirchl. Gesellschaftsverfassung, iii. 411. K. O. Hüllmann's Gesch. d. Ursprungs d. Stände in Deutschland, 2te Ausg. Berlin. 1830. S. 219, ff. C. Montag's Gesch. d. deutschen staatsbürgerl. Freiheit, ii. 79. Eichhorn's deutsche Staats u. Rechtsgesch. ii. 58. The secular power of the prelates had been gradually increasing in the Frank empire, by the acquisition of royal prerogatives in times of disorder,' till at length the kings of Germany, espe Papam rite colo, sed te prostratus adore: Vivere vis Romae, clara depromito voce: Plus domino Papae quam Domno pareo Papae. Comp. ejusd. Epist. ii. 8, ad Hildebrandum : Tuis coeptis tuisque conatibus semper ob temperare contendi, et in omnibus tuis certaminibus atque victoriis ego me non commilito nem sive pedissequum, sed quasi fulmen injeci. Quod enim certamen unquam coepisti, ubi protinus ego non essem et litigator et judex? Ubi scilicet non aliam auctoritatem canonum, nisi solum tuae voluntatis sequebar arbitrium, et mera tua voluntas mihi canonum erat auctoritas. Nec unquam judicavi, quod visum est mihi, sed quod placuit tibi. Peter's complaints against Hildebrand refer to the refusal of the latter to allow him to lay down his bishopric of Ostia, and retire to solitude. Thus, for instance, the passage, Ep. i. 16 (ap. Baron. ann. 1061, no. 37): Sed adhuc fortasse blandus ille tyrannus, qui mihi Neroniana semper pietate condoluit, qui me colaphisando demulsit, qui me certe aquilino (ut ita loquar) ungue palpavit, hanc querelus erumpet in vocem: Ecce latibulam petit, et sub colore poenitentiae Romam subterfugere quaerit, accessum lucrari machinatur de inobedientia, et otium caeteris in bella ruentibus.-Sed ego sancto Satanae meo respondeo, quod filii Ruben et Gad Moysi ductori suo respondisse dicuntur: Nos, inquiunt, armati et accincti pergemus ad praelium ante filios Israel, donec introducamus in loca sua, etc. (Num. xxxii. 17). Hoc itaque modo comitaturus quidem vos arma corripio, sed vobis duce Christo post bella victoribus, mox recedo. 1 Comp. § 9, note 5. Thus grants conferring privileges connected with markets, coinage, and tolls, and penal judicature, were multiplied. Lewis the Infant, who was especially profuse in his gifts to the clergy (Gatterer Comm. de Ludov. IV. Infante. Götting. 1759. p. 34), first conferred on the abbot of Corvey (900) the bishops of Treves (902, see Böhmer's Regesta Karolorum, S. 115) and of Tongern (908) and others, the privileges of counts (Gatterer, 1. c. p. 53). Henry I. A.D. 928, bestows on the bishop of Toul the dukedom and dignity of the city Toul, the first instance of this sort. Böhmer's Regesta v. Conrad I. bis Heinrich VII. S. 3. Thomassinus, P. iii. lib. i. c. 28 and 30. Montag, i. ii. 41, 48; ii. 6. Hüllmann's Gesch. d. Ursprungs d. Regalien in Deutschland. Frankf I. c. 1806. cially since the time of Otto I., found it to their advantage to balance the overgrown power of their nobles by transferring to the prelates whole counties as fiefs. By this means, for the present, the dependence of the prelates on the kings was secured.2 They were for the most part appointed by the kings;3 had constantly to be installed in office by them; take the oath of alle 4 a Otto I. invested his brother Bruno, archbishop of Cologne, with the dukedom of Lorrain, but merely in his own person. Besides this he bestowed on his newly-founded bishoprics of Magdeburg, Brandeburg, etc., the privileges of a count. In particular, the emperors Otto III. and Henry II. bestowed numerous counties on different churches. See Thomassini Vet. et nov. eccl. discipl. P. iii. lib. i. c. 26–32. Montag, ii. 90, 197. Hüllmann's Gesch. d. Stände, S. 276. Comp. the old German chronicle in Leibnitii Introd. in script. rer. Brunsvic. t. i. p. 13, from the times of Otto I.: Da begunten zuerst die Bischoffe weltliche Richte zu haben, das dauchte damals umbillig manchen Manne. How such endowments were sometimes obtained may be learned from the vita Meinwerci Ep. Paderb. c. 79. (Leibnit. Script. rer. Brunsv. t. i. p. 544.) Meinwerk beset the emperor Henry II. to give him the estate Ervete (curtis Ervete sita in pago Westfalon), and at length obtained it with the words: "Tu odium Dei omniumque Sanctorum ejus habeas, qui me bonis concessis cum detrimento regni spoliare non cessas." Episcopus autem privilegium cum manu in altum exaltans: "Beatus es," ait, "Henrice, et bene tibi erit, cui pro hac oblatione caelum patebit, cujus anima cum Sanctis sempiterna possidebit gaudia. Videte omnes populi, considerate fideles universi: talis oblatio peccatorum fit abolitio; hoc sacrificium Deo acceptabile animabus fit propitiabile. Hoc quique fideles pro posse suae facultatis imitari studeant; ut pro temporalibus aeterna, pro transitoriis mansura obtinere valeant.". Other instances of spiritual impudence, such as his wringing from the emperor the gift of a goblet, of an altar-cloth, etc., may be seen in the same work. Still farther, c. 82: Episcopus autem quoddam Imperatoris tegmen egregium, praecipui decoris et mirifici operis pallium, saepenumero obtinere desiderans, effectu caruit; donec quadam die Imperatori pluribus intento illud fortuito rapuit. Imperator vero Episcopum de rapinae incusans vitio talionem debitam suo se tempore redditurum perhibuit: he afterward led him astray by a private alteration in his missal, so that he prayed pro mulis et mulabus instead of famulis et famulabus. On the gifts of Conrad II. see Stenzel's Gesch. Deutschlands unter den frünk. Kaisern, ii. 127, during Henry Fourth's minority ibid. p. 135, ff. 3 For even the privilege of free choice, which many churches had, was continually subject to the royal confirmation, and hence they were for the most part apparent rather than real. The king often pointed out to the electors the person to be chosen, as Henry II. did Tagino 1004 to be archbp. of Magdeburg (Thietmar, v. 24, ap. Pertz, v. 802), 1012, Walterd (Thietmar, vi. 44): or he did not confirm a choice, but appointed another, as Henry did in the cases of Meingaud, archbp. of Treves, 1008 (Thietmar, vi. 25) and Himmo abbot of Reichenau (Hermann. Contractus ad ann. 1006, ap. Pertz, vii. 118.) At a disputed election in Halberstadt, Otto III. nominated a third as bishop, Arnulf, 995 (Thietmar, iv. 17). None doubted the right of the king. Pope John X. objects to Archbp. Hermann of Cologne that he had consecrated Hilduin, bishop of Tongern, contrary to the will of Charles the Simple, cum prisca consuetudo vigent, qualiter nullus alicui clerico episcopatum conferre debeat. nisi Rex cui divinitus sceptra collata sunt (Mansi, xviii. 320; cf. Flodoardi Hist. Eccl Rhem. ad ann. 920). Hüllmann, S. 289. Montag, ii. 119. Planck, iii. 406. Hence Sigismund, bishop of Halberstadt, when sick, advises his chaplain Bernhard (A.D. 923), whom he wished to succeed him (Thietmar, i. 12): vade ad curtem regiam, sumens ex mea parte, quae tibi sint ad haec necessaria, et acquire gratiam et auxilium ibi optime valentium, ut tibi liceat sine omni offensione mihi succedere. Bernhard follows his advice, et praedicti Regis (Henrici I.) munere, quod postulat consequitur. Even as early as Clovis in Dipl. a. 508 (ap. Bouquet iv. 616): Quicquid est fisci nostri giance to them, like other vassals;5 follow them to the wars in times of exigency; appear frequently at court; and were often deposed by them. In this way they drew on themselves the envy 8 -per annulum tradimus. Of Clovis. II. 623, it is said in the vita S. Romani Ep. Rathomag.: Baculum illi contulit pastoralem. In like manner Lewis the German invested with the staff (vita Remberti, c. 4, Act. SS. Febr. i. 562), and Arnulf (Adam. Brem. i. 39), and Otto I. (Thietmar, ii. 16). Henry II. gave Walterd the ring as a pledge that he would invest him with the staff (Thietmar, vi. 44). So also Conred II. did to Bardo (vita Bardonis Archiep. Mogunt, c. 24, in the Act. SS. Jun. ii. 381). The custom of investire per baculum et annulum did not originate till a later time. Natal. Alex. Hist. eccl. saec. xi. et xii. diss. iv. Mosheim Institutt. hist. eccl. p. 408, note r. Hüllmann, S. 153. Montag, i. ii. 186, ii. 127. Planck, iii. 462. These oaths seem to have become customary under Charlemagne. It is true that the Episcopi apud Carisiacum congregati in Epist. ad Ludov. Reg. Germ. ann. 858 cap. 15 (Baluzii Capitt. ii. p. 119) complain of them: Et nos Episcopi Domino consecrati non sumus hujusmodi homines, ut sicut homines saeculares in vassalatico debeamus nos cuilibet commendare-aut jurationis sacramentum, quod nos evangelica et apostolica atque canonica auctoritas vetat, debeamus quoquo modo facere. Manus enim chrismate sacro peruncta, quae de pane et vino aqua mixto per orationem et crucis signum conficit corpus Christi et sanguinis sacramentum, abominabile est, quicquid ante ordinationem fecerit, ut post ordinationem episcopatus saeculare tangat ullo modo sacramentum. Et lingua Episcopi, quae facta est per Dei gratiam clavis caeli, nefarium est, ut, sicut saecularis quilibet, super sacra juret in nomine Domini et Sanctorum invocatione.-Et si aliquando sacramenta ab Episcopis exacta aut facta fuerunt, contra Deum et ecclesiasticas regulas, quae Spiritu 8. dictatae et Christi sunt sanguine confirmatae, irrita s. Scripturae paginis declarantur, et exigentes atque facientes medicamento exinde salutaris poenitentiae indigent. But Hincmar, probably the author of this letter, was himself obliged to take the oath a second time, 876, at the Synodus Pontigonensis (Baluz. ii. 250. Pertz, iii. 533). In proportion as the prerogatives of the prelates were afterward multiplied, those difficulties in the way of taking the oath disappeared. Thomassini Vet. et nov. eccl. discipl. P. ii. lib. ii. c. 48. Montag, Bd. 1. Th. 1. S. 180. They were even obliged to lead their troops in person. Ex. gr. Gerardus in vita Udalrici Ep. August. (in Mabillon. Act. SS. ord. Bened. saec. v. p. 416), cap. 3: Concessum est Udalrico Episcopo, ut Adalberto in ejus vice itinera hostilia cum militia episcopali in voluntatem Imperatoris perageret, et in curte Imperatoris ejus vice assiduitate servitii moraretur. Hence the prelates regularly accompanied the armies in the tenth century. Hüllmann, S. 272. Montag, ii. 111, 200. Planck, iii. 465. How great the public calls were appears from the fact of the Abbey of Lorch, in the 11th century, having to furnish 1200 men (cod. Lauresham, i. 183). It was even usual for them to take part in the battle in person. Thus Liutbert, archbishop of Mainz, fought against the Normans (Annal. Fuld. ad ann. 872. Pertz, i. 385); against the Sorabes (l. c. ad ann. 874); finally twice still against the Normans (1. c. ad ann. 883 and 885). Bishop Arno of Würzburg attacked the Slavonians (Regino ad ann. 892. Pertz, i. 605), Henry, bishop of Augsburg, with many other bishops, and Werner, abbot of Fulda, 982, the Saracens (Lambertus, ap. Pertz, v. 65). Comp. Thietmar, ii. 17, ap. Pertz, v. 752. Michael, bishop of Ratisbon, accompanies the Bavarian princes against Hungary. The battle is lost. Episcopus autem abscisa suimet auricula, et caeteris sauciatus membris cum interfectis quasi mortuus latuit. A Hungarian is about to kill him. Tunc iste confortatus in Domino post longum mutui agonis luctamen victor hostem prostravit, et inter multas itineris asperitates incolumis notos pervenit ad fines. Inde gaudium grego suo exoritur, et omni Christum cognoscenti. Excipitur ab omnibus miles bonus in clero, et servatur optimus pastor in populo, et fuit ejusdem mutilatio non ad dedecus, sed ad honorem magis. 7 Hüllmann, S. 274. Montag, ii. 115, 202. The Conc. Tribur. ann. 892, c. 10, after the example of the Conc. Carthag. i. (see above, 20, note 5), decrees ut nullus Episcopus deponatur nisi a xii. Episcopis, Presbyter a sex, of the nobility; and were often, particularly the abbots, defrauded by their bailiffs, 10 and were forced to bestow many church possessions in feudal tenure, which soon after became heritable, in order to obtain men fit for military service." Spiritual places were conferred, especially by petty princes in Italy and France, from unworthy motives, or even sold.12 The kings of Germany 12 Diaconus a tribus, without specifying the pope as sole judge of bishops according to Pseudo-Isidore. However, even that decree was not by any means adhered to as a form. The bishops were deposed at once by feudal lords for felony. Thus, by Henry II. were deposed the bishop of Asti (Arnulph. Mediol. i. 16), by Conrad II. the archbishop of Milan, and the bishops of Vercelli, Cremona, and Piacenza (Wippo in vita Conradi II. ed. Pistorii, p. 441). The deposition of Arnulph, archbishop of Rheims (§ 22, note 21), could only have been contested by the pope against a weak prince, and with imperial support. Planck, iii. 443, 467. 9 Hüllmann, S. 237. Montag, ii. 17, 79. 10 Abo, Abbas Floriacensis († 1004), canones, § 2 (in Mabillonii Vett. analecta, p. 135): Defensores Ecclesiarum, qui dicuntur, hodie contra auctoritatem legum et canonum sibi defendunt quod fuerat juris Ecclesiarum: sicque violentiam Clericis et Monachis ingerendo, res Ecclesiarum seu Monasteriorum usufructuario diripiunt, colonos in paupertatem redigunt, possessiones Ecclesiarum non augent, sed minuunt: et quorum defensores esse debuerant, cos vastant. Patet rerum copia cunctis hostibus praedae, nec parant saltem vel verbis obviam ut resistant, qui se putant non janı Advocatos, sed dominos: dum post abscessum hostium consumunt quidquid fuerit residuum. Denique idcirco videmus ecclesias destructas, monasteria quaedam diruta, quaedam ad summam inopiam redacta,—quia multi se ultro offerentes sub advocationis obtentu de possessionibus, de reditibus, de oblationibus maximam portionem intercipiunt, quam Ecclesiastici capere debuerant. Hällmann, S. 250. Montag, ii. 222. Planck, iii. 611. 11 Hincmari Epist. ad Carol. Calv. pro Hincm. Laudunensi (Opp. ed. Sirmond, ii. 324) : Porro Episcopus-cum de rebus Ecclesiae propter militiam beneficium donat, aut filiis patrum, qui eidem Ecclesiae profuerunt, et patribus utiliter succedere poterunt, quoniam, at quidam scripsit, nisi vitulus nutriatur, bos aratro non jungitur, aut talibus dare debet, qui idonei sunt reddere Caesari quae sunt Caesaris, et quae sunt Dei Deo. A quibus, vel ab eo, qui diu et Ecclesiae utilitatibus ac necessitatibus profuit, et reipublicae ac militiae utilis fuit, et infirmitate vel aetate confectus jam per se ipsum ea exequi non valet, praecipue autem sibi servientem filium habenti, qui pro eo haec valeat, exequi, si Episcopus beneficium quaecunque occasione abstulerit; non abhorret a ratione, si non accuset Epis copum ad publicos judices, quod non licet, sed ad vos se reclamat de beneficio militiae. Egbert, archbishop of Treves, complains, 981 (Honthemii Hist. Trevir. i. 321): Ipsius Epis copii (Trevirensis) maxima pars militibus in beneficium distributa, ita ut nulli lacorum propria hereditate prodesse possem. Montag, ii. 109. 12 Comp. Attonis Ep. Vercellensis (about 950) Lib. de pressuris ecclesiasticis (d'Achery Spicileg. i. 414, ss.), p. 421: Irreligiosi principes haec omnia parvipendentes, suum tantummodo in his [electionibus Episcoporum] parant praevalere edictum. Solent etiam admodum indignari, si vel ab aliis aliquis, cujuscumque meriti sit, Episcopus eligatur, vel si a se electus, cujuscunque pravitatis sit, ab aliquo reprobetur. Illorum sane, quos ipsi eligunt, vitia, quamvis multa et magna sint, velut nulla tamen reputantur. Quorum quidem in examinatione non charitas et fides vel spes inquiruntur, sed divitae, affinitas, et obsequium considerantur. P. 423: Quidam autem adeo mente et corpore obcaecantur, ut ipsos etiam parvulos ad pastoralem promovere curam non dubitent, quos nec mente nec corpore idoneos esse constet. Rident plurimi, alii quasi de infantis honore gaudentes, alii tamen clarum et manifestum praestigium deridentes. Ipse quoque parvulus de aliquibus interrogatus capitulis, quae si praeparare poterit memoriter reddet, vel in aliquo tremens leget pittachio, non episcopalem timens perdere gratiam, sed magistri incurrere virgam. (Thus Count Heribert of Vermandois, 925, forced his son, Hugo, five years old, |