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rule becomes an oppressive tyranny of Robespierre it has been said, that if he did not know how to govern, he aimed at least at ruling.

These terms are applied either to persons or things: persons govern or rule others; or they govern, rule, or regulate things.

In regard to persons govern is always in a good sense, but rule is sometimes taken in a bad sense; it is naturally associated with an abuse of power: to govern is so perfectly discretionary, that we speak of governing ourselves; but we speak only of ruling others: nothing can be more lamentable than to be ruled by one who does not know how to govern himself;

Slaves to our passions we become, and then
It becomes impossible to govern men. WALLER.

It is the business of a man to rule his house by keeping all its members in due subjection to his authority; it is the duty of a person to rule those who are under him in all matters wherein they are incompetent to govern themselves;

Margret shall now be queen, and rule the king,
But I will rule both her, the king, and realm.
SHAKSPEARE.

To govern necessarily supposes the adoption of judicious means; but ruling is confined to no means but such as will obtain the end of subjecting the will of one to that of another; a woman is said to rule by obeying; an artful and imperious woman will have recourse to various stratagems to elude the power to which she ought to submit, and render it subservient to her own purposes.

In application to things, govern and rule admit of a similar distinction: a minister governs the state, and a pilot governs the vessel; the movements of the machine are in both cases directed by the exercise of the judgement;

Whence can this very motion take its birth,
Not sure from matter, from dull clods of earth?
But from a living spirit lodg'd within,
Which governs all the bodily machine. JENYNS.

A person rules the times, seasons, fashions, and the like; it is an act of the individual will;

When I behold a factious band agree,

To call it freedom when themselves are free;
Each wanton judge new penal statutes draw;
Laws grind the poor, and rich men rule the law;
I fly from petty tyrants to the throne. GOLDSMITH.

Regulate is a species of governing simply by judgement; the word is applicable to things of minor moment, where the force of authority is not so requisite: one governs the affairs of a nation, or a large body where great interests are involved; we regulate the concerns of an individual, or we regulate in cases where good order or convenience only is consulted; "Regulate the patient in his manner of living.' WISE

MAN.

So likewise in regard to ourselves, we govern our passions, but we regulate our affections.

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GOVERNMENT, ADMINISTRATION.

Both these terms may be employed either to designate the act of governing and administering, or the persons governing and administering. In both cases government has a more extensive meaning than administration: the government includes every exercise of cise of authority, which consists in putting the laws authority; the administration implies only that exeror will of another in force: hence, when we speak of the government, as it respects the persons, it implies the whole body of constituted authorities; and the administration, only that part which puts in execution the intentions of the whole the government of a country therefore may remain unaltered, while the administration undergoes many changes; Government is an art above the attainment of an ordinary genius.' SOUTH. It is the business of the government to make treaties of peace and war; and without a government it is impossible for any people to negociate; 'What are we to do if the government and the whole community are of the same description?' BURke. It is the business of the administration to administer justice, to regulate the finances, and to direct all the complicated concerns of a nation; without an administration all public business would be at a stand; In treating of an invisible world, and the administration of government there carried on by the Father of spirits, particulars occur which appear incomprehensible.' BLAIR.

GOVERNMENT, CONSTITUTION.

Government is here as in the former article (v. Government) the generic term; constitution the specific. Government implies generally the act of governing or exercising authority under any form whatever; constitution implies any constituted or fixed form of government: we may have a government without a constitution; we cannot have a constitution without a government. In the first formation of society go

vernment was placed in the hands of individuals who exercised authority according to discretion rather than any fixed rule or law: here then was government without a constitution: as time and experience proved the necessity of some established form, and the wisdom of enlightened men discovered the advantages and disadvantages of different forms, government in every country assumed a more definite shape, and became the constitution of the country; hence then the union of government and constitution. Governments are divided by political writers into three classes, monarchical, aristocratic, and republican: but these three general forms have been adopted with such variations and modifications as to render the constitution of every country something peculiar to itself; Free governments have committed more flagrant acts of tyranny than the most perfect despotic governments which we have ever known.' BURKE. The physician of the state who, not satisfied with the cure of distempers, undertakes to regenerate constitutions, ought to show uncommon powers.' BURKE.

Political squabblers have always chosen to consider government in its limited sense as including only the supreme or executive authority, and the constitution as that which is set up by the authority of the people; but this is only a forced application of a general term to serve the purposes of party. Constitution, according to its real signification, does not convey the idea of the source of power any more than government ; the constitution may with as much propriety be formed or constituted by the monarch as government is exercised by the monarch; and of this we may be assured, that what is to be formed specifically by any person or persons so as to become constituted must be framed by something more authoritative than a rabble. The constitution may, as I have before observed, be the work of time, for most of the constitutions in Europe, whether republican or monarchical, are indebted to time and the natural course of events for their establishment; but in our own country the case has been so far different that by the wisdom and humanity of those in government or power, a constitution has been expressly formed, which distinguishes the English nation from all others. Hence the word constitution is applied by distinction to the English form of government; and since this constitution has happily secured the rights and liberties of the people by salutary laws, a vulgar error has arisen that the constitution is the work of the people, and by a natural consequence it is maintained that the people, if they are not satisfied with their constitution, have the right of introducing changes; a dangerous error which cannot be combated with too much steadfastness. It must be obvious to all who reflect on this subject that the constitution, as far as it is assignable to the efforts of any man or set of men, was never the work of the people, but of the government or those who held the supreme power.

This view of the matter is calculated to lessen the jealousies of the people towards their government, and to abate that overweening complacency with which they are apt to look upon themselves, and their own

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imaginary work; for it is impossible but that they must regard with a more dispassionate eye the pos sessors of power when they see themselves indebted to those in power for the most admirable constitution ever framed.

The constitution is in danger, is the watch-word of a party who want to increase the power of the people; but every one who is acquainted with history, and remembers that before the constitution was fully formed it was the people who overturned the government, will perceive that much more is to be apprehended by throwing any weight into the scale of the popular side of government, than by strengthening the hands of the executive government. The constitution of England has arrived at the acme of human perfection; it ensures to every man as much as he can wish; it deprives no man of what he can consistently with the public peace expect; it has within itself adequate powers for correcting every evil and abuse as it may arise, and is fully competent to make such modifications of its own powers as the circumstances may require. Every good citizen therefore will be contented to leave the government of the country in the hands of those constituted authorities as they at present exist, fully assured that if they have not the wisdom and power to meet every exigency, the evil will not be diminished by making the people our legislators.

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Heav'ns, how unlike their Belgic sires of old!

Rough, poor, content, ungovernably bold. GOLDSMITH. The unruly respects that which is to be ruled or turned at the instant, and is applicable therefore to the management of children: ungovernable respects that which is to be put into a regular course, and is applicable therefore either to the management of children or the direction of those who are above the state of childhood; a child is unruly in his actions, and ungovernable in his conduct. Refractory, which from the Latin refringo to break open, marks the disposition to break every thing down before it, is the excess of the unruly with regard to children: the unruly is however negative; but the refractory is positive: an unruly child objects to be ruled; a refractory child sets up a positive resistance to all rule: an unruly child may be altogether silent and passive; a refractory child always commits himself by some act of in

REVOLT.

temperance in word or deed: he is unruly if in any INSURRECTION, SEDITION, REBELLION, degree he gives trouble in the ruling; he is refractory if he refuses altogether to be ruled. This term refractory may also be applied to the brutes; I conceive (replied Nicholas) I stand here before you, my most equitable judges, for no worse a crime than cudgelling my refractory mule.' CUMBERLAND.

TUMULTUOUS, TURBULENT, SEDI-
TIOUS, MUTINOUS.

Tumultuous describes the disposition to make a noise; those who attend the play-houses, particularly the lower orders, are frequently tumultuous; Many civil broils and tumultuous rebellions, they fairly overcame, by reason of the continual presence of their king, whose only presence oftentimes constrains the unruly people from a a thousand evil occasions.' SPENSER (on Ireland). Turbulent marks a hostile spirit of resistance to authority; when prisoners are dissatisfied they are frequently turbulent; Men of ambitious and turbulent spirits, that were dissatisfied with privacy, were allowed to engage in matters of state." BENTLEY. Seditious marks a spirit of resistance to government; during the French revolution the people were often disposed to be seditious; Very many of the nobility in Edinburgh, at that time, did not appear yet in this seditious behaviour.' CLARENDON. Mutinous marks a spirit of resistance against officers either in the army or navy; a general will not fail to quell the first risings of a mutinous spirit;

Lend me your guards, that if persuasion fail, Force may against the mutinous prevail. WAller. Electioneering mobs are always tumultuous; the young and the ignorant are so averse to control that they are easily led by the example of an individual to' be turbulent; among the Romans the people were in the habit of holding seditious meetings, and sometimes the soldiery would be mutinous.

TUMULTUOUS, TUMULTUARY. Tumultuous signifies having tumult; tumultuary, disposed for tumult: the former is applied to objects in general; the latter to persons only: in tumultuous meetings the voice of reason is the last thing that is heard;

But, O! beyond description happiest he

Who ne'er must roll on life's tumultuous sea. PRIOR. It is the natural tendency of large and promiscuous assemblies to become tumultuary; With tumultuary, but irresistible violence, the Scotch insurgents fell upon the churches in that city (Perth).' ROBERTSON.

Insurrection, from surgo to rise up, signifies rising up against any power that is; sedition, in Latin seditio, compounded of se and itio, signifies a going apart, that is, the people going apart from the government; rebellion, in Latin rebellio, from rebello, signifies turning upon or against in a hostile manner; revolt, in French revolter, is most probably compounded of re and volter, from volvo to roll, signifying to roll or turn back from, to turn against.

The term insurrection is general; it is used in a good or bad sense, according to the nature of the power against which one rises up; sedition and rebellion are more specific; they are always taken in the bad sense of unallowed opposition to lawful authority. There may be an insurrection against usurped power, which is always justifiable; but sedition and rebellion are levelled against power universally acknowledged to be legitimate. Insurrection is always open; it is a rising up of many in a mass; but it does not imply any concerted, or any specifically active measure; a united spirit of opposition, as the moving cause, is all that is comprehended in the meaning of the term; Elizabeth enjoyed a wonderful calm (excepting some short gusts of insurrection at the beginning) for near upon forty-five years together.' HOWELL. Sedition is either secret or open, according to circumstances; in popular governments it will be open and determined; in monarchical governments it is secretly organized; • When the Roman people began to bring in plebeians to the office of chiefest power and dignity, then began those seditions which so long distempered, and at length ruined, the state.' TEMPLE. Rebellion is the consummation of sedition; the scheme of opposition which has been digested in secrecy breaks out into open hostilities, and becomes rebellion;

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If that rebellion

Came like itself, in base and abject routs, You reverend father, and these noble lords, Had not been here to dress the ugly forms Of base and bloody insurrection. SHAKSPEARE. The insurrection which was headed by Wat Tyler, in the time of Richard II, was an unhappy instance of widely extended delusion among the common people; the insurrection in Madrid, in the year 1808, against most important results that ever sprung the infamous usurpation of Bonaparte, has led to the from motion. Rome was the grand theatre of seditions, any comwhich were set on foot by the Tribunes: England has been disgraced by one rebellion, which ended in the death of its king.

Sedition is common to all forms of government, but flourishes most in republics, since there it can scarcely be regarded as a political or moral offence: rebellion exists properly in none but monarchical states; in which the allegiance that men owe to their sovereign requires to be broken with the utmost violence, in order to be shaken off. Insurrections may be made by nations against a foreign dominion, or by subjects

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*These two words equally suppose the union of many persons, and their opposition to certain views different from their own. But faction, from factio making, denotes an activity and secret machination against those whose views are opposed; and party, from the verb to part or split, expresses only a division of opinion.

The term party has of itself nothing odious, that of faction is always so. Any man, without distinction of rank, may have a party either at court or in the army, in the city or in literature, without being himself immediately implicated in raising it; but factions are always the result of active efforts; one may have a party for one's merit from the number and ardor of one's friends; but a faction is raised by busy and turbulent spirits for their own purposes. Rome was torn by the intestine factions of Cæsar and Pompey; France, from the commencement of the revolution to the period of Buonaparte's usurpation, was successively governed by some ruling faction which raised itself upon the ruins of that which it had destroyed. Factions are not so prevalent in England as parties, owing to the peculiar excellence of the constitution; but there are not wanting factious spirits who, if they could overturn the present balance of power which has been so happily obtained, would have an opportunity of practising their arts alternately on the high and low, and carrying on their schemes by the aid of both. Faction is the demon of discord, armed with the power to do endless mischief, and intent alone on destroying whatever opposes its progress. Woe to that state into which it has found an entrance; It is the restless ambition of a few artful men that thus breaks a people into factions, and draws several wellmeaning persons to their interest by a specious concern for their country.' ADDISON. Party spirit may show itself in noisy debate; but while it keeps within the legitimate bounds of opposition, it is an evil that must be endured; As men formerly became eminent in learned societies by their parts and acquisitions, they now distinguish themselves by the warmth and violence with which they espouse their respective parties.' ADDISON.

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FACTIOUS, SEDITIOUS.

Factious, in Latin factiosus from facio to do, signifies the same as busy or intermeddling; ready to take an active part in matters not of one's own immediate concern; seditious, in Latin seditiosus, signifies prone to sedition (v. Insurrection).

Factious is an epithet to characterize the tempers of men; seditious characterizes their conduct: the factious man attempts to raise himself into importance, he aims at authority, and seeks to interfere in the measures of government; the seditious man attempts to excite others, and to provoke their resistance to established authority: the first wants to be a law-giver; the second does not hesitate to be a law-breaker: the first wants to direct the state; the second to overturn

it: the factious man is mostly in possession of either power, rank, or fortune; the seditious man is seldom elevated in station or circumstances above the mass of the people. The Roman tribunes were in general little better than factious demagogues; such, in fact, as abound in all republics: Wat Tyler was a seditious disturber of the peace. Factious is mostly applied to individuals;

He is a traitor, let him to the Tower,

And crop away that factious pate of his. SHAKSPEARE. Seditious is employed for bodies of men: hence we speak of a factious nobleman, a seditious multitude; France is considered (by the ministry) as merely a foreign power, and the seditious English only as a domestic faction.' BURKE.

OBSTINATE, CONTUMACIOUS, STUB

BORN, HEADSTRONG, HEADY.

Obstinate, in Latin obstinatus, participle of obstino, from ob and stino, sto or sisto, signifies standing in the way of another; contumacious, prone to contumacy (v. Contumacy); stubborn, or stoutborn, stiff or immoveable by nature; headstrong, strong in the head or the mind; and heady, full of one's own head.

Obstinacy is a habit of the mind; contumacy is either a particular state of feeling or a mode of action: obstinacy consists in an attachment to one's own mode of acting; contumacy consists in a swelling contempt of others the obstinate man adheres tenaciously to his own ways, and opposes reason to reason: the contumacious man disputes the right of another to control his actions, and opposes force to force. Obstinacy interferes with a man's private conduct, and makes him blind to right reason; contumacy is a crime against lawful authority; the contumacious man sets himself against his superiors: when young people are obstinate they are bad subjects of education;

But man we find the only creature
Who, led by folly, combats nature;
Who, when she loudly cries, forbear,
With obstinacy fixes there. SWIFT.

* Vide Beauzée: «Faction, parti.”

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When people are contumacious they are blesome subjects to the king; When an offender is cited to appear in any ecclesiastical court, and he neglects to do it, he is pronounced contumacious." BEVERIDGE.

The stubborn and the headstrong are species of the obstinate the former lies altogether in the perversion of the will; the latter in the perversion of the judgement: the stubborn person wills what he wills; the headstrong person thinks what he thinks. Stubbornness is mostly inherent in the nature: a headstrong temper is commonly associated with violence and impetuosity of character. Obstinacy discovers itself in persons of all ages and stations; a stubborn and headstrong disposition betray themselves mostly in those who are bound to conform to the will of another.

The obstinate keep the opinions which they have once embraced in spite of all proof; but they are not hasty in forming their opinions, nor adopt them without a choice: the headstrong seize the first opinions that offer, and act upon them in spite of all remon

strance;

We, blindly by our headstrong passions led,
Are hot for action. DRYDEN.

The stubborn follow the ruling will or bent of the mind, without regard to any opinions; they are not to be turned by force or persuasion;

From whence he brought them to these salvage parts,
And with science mollified their stubborn hearts.

SPENSER.

If an obstinate child be treated with some degree of indulgence, there may be hopes of correcting his failing; but a stubborn and a headstrong child are troublesome subjects of education, who will baffle the utmost skill and patience: the former is insensible to all reason; the latter has blinded the little reason which he possesses the former is unconscious of every thing, but the simple will and determination to do what he does; the latter is so preoccupied with his own favorite ideas as to set every other at naught: force serves mostly to confirm both in their perverse resolution of persistance. Heady is applied as an epithet to the thing rather than the person; Heady confidence promises victory without contest.' JOHNSON.

certain points, and oppose the individual; the rebel sets himself up against the authority itself: the contumacious thwart and contradict, they never resort to open violence; the rebel acts only by main force: contumacy shelters itself under the plea of equity and justice; The censor told the criminal that he spoke in contempt of the court, and that he should be proceeded against for contumacy.' ADDISON. Rebellion sets all law and order at defiance; The mother of Waller was the daughter of John Hampden of Hampden, in the same county, and sister to Hampden the zealot of rebellion.' JOHNSON.

DISAFFECTION, DISLOYALTY.

Disaffection is general; disloyalty is particular, being a species of disaffection. Men are disaffected to the government; disloyal to their prince.

Disaffection may be said with regard to any form of government; disloyalty only with regard to a monarchy. Although both terms are commonly employed in a bad sense, yet the former does not always convey the unfavorable meaning which is attached to the latter. A man may have reasons to think himself justified in disaffection; but he will never attempt to offer any thing in justification of disloyalty. A usurped government will have many disaffected subjects with whom it must deal leniently; Yet, I protest, it is no salt desire Of seeing countries shifting for a religion! Nor any disaffection to the state Where I was bred, and unto which I owe My dearest plots, hath brought me out.

BEN JOHNSON.

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CONTUMACY, REBELLION. Contumacy, from the Latin contumax, compounded of contra and tumeo to swell, signifies the swelling one's self up by way of resistance; rebellion, in Latin rebellio, from rebello, or re and bello to war in return, signifies carrying on war against those to whom we owe, and have before paid, a lawful subjection.

Resistance to lawful authority is the common idea included in the signification of both these terms, but contumacy does not express so much as rebellion: the contumacious resist only occasionally; the rebel resists systematically: the contumacious stand only on

GUIDE, RULE.

Guide, signifies either the person that guides, or the thing that guides; rule is only the thing that rules or regulates; guide is to rule as the genus to the species; every rule is a guide to a certain extent; but the guide is often that which exceeds the rule. The guide, in the moral sense, as in the proper sense, goes with us, and points out the exact path; it does not permit us to err either to the right or left the rule marks out a line, beyond which we may not go; but it leaves us to trace the line, and consequently to fail either on the one side or other.

The Bible is our best guide for moral practice; 'You must first apply to religion as the guide of life, before you can have recourse to it as the refuge of sor

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