ploy the Druids as the performers of those sacrifices; because they think that unless the life of a man be offered for the life of a man, the mind of the immortal gods cannot be rendered propitious, and they have sacrifices of that kind ordained for national purposes. Others have figures of vast size, the limbs of which, formed by osiers, they fill with living men, which being set on fire, the men perish in the flames. They consider that the oblation of such as have been taken in theft, or in robbery, or any other offence, is more acceptable to the immortal gods; but when a supply of that class is wanting they have recourse to the oblation even of the innocent. They believe that Jupiter possesses the sovereignty of the heavenly powers; that Mars presides over wars. To him, when they have determined to engage in battle, they commonly vow those things which they shall take in war. When they have conquered, they sacrifice whatever captured animals may have survived the conflict, and collect the other things into one place. In many states you may see piles of these things heaped up in their consecrated spots; nor does it often happen that any one, disregarding the sanctity of the case, dares either to secrete in his house things captured, or take away those deposited; and the most severe punishment, with torture, has been established for such a deed.

All the Gauls assert that they are descended from the god Dis, and say that this tradition has been handed down from the Druids. For that reason they compute the divisions of every season, not by the number of days, but of nights. They keep birthdays and the beginnings of months and years in such an order that the day follows the night. Among the other usages of their life, they differ in this from almost all other nations, that they do not permit their children to approach them openly until they are grown up so as to be able to bear the service of war; and they regard it as indecorous for a son of boyish age to stand in public in the presence of

his father.

Whatever sums of money the husbands have received in the name of dowry from their wives, making an estimate of it, they add the same amount out of their own

estates. An account is kept of all this money conjointly, and the profits are laid by: whichever of them shall have survived the other, to that one the portion of both reverts, together with the profits of the previous time. Husbands have a power of life and death over their wives, as well as over their children; and when the father of a family born in a more than commonly distinguished rank has died his relations assemble and, if the circumstances of his death are suspicious, hold an investigation upon the wives in the manner adopted toward slaves; and, if proof be obtained, put them to severe torture and kill them. The funerals-considering the state of civilization among the Gauls-are magnificent and costly; and they cast into the fire all things, including living creatures, which they suppose to have been dear to them when alive; and, a little before this period, slaves and dependants who were ascertained to have been beloved by them were, after the regular funeral rites were completed, burnt together with them.

Those states which are considered to conduct their commonwealth more judiciously have it ordained by their laws that if any person shall have heard by rumor and report from his neighbors anything concerning the commonwealth he shall convey it to the magistrate, and not impart it to any other; because it has been discovered that inconsiderate and inexperienced men were often alarmed by false reports, and driven to some rash act, or else took hasty measures in affairs of the highest importance. The magistrates conceal those things which. require to be kept unknown; and they disclose to the people whatever they determine to be expedient. It is not lawful to speak of the commonwealth except in council.-Commentaries, VI., 16–20.

THE GERMANIC PEOPLES.

The Germans differ much from these usages of the Gauls; for they have neither Druids to preside over sacred offices, nor do they pay great regard to sacrifices. They rank in the number of the gods those alone whom they behold, and by whose instrumentality they are obvi

ously benefited-namely, the sun, fire, and the moon; they have not heard of the other deities, even by report. Their whole life is occupied in hunting and in the pursuits of the military art; from childhood they devote themselves to fatigue and hardships. Those who have remained chaste for the longest time receive the greatest commendation among their people: they think that by this the physical powers are increased and the sinews are strengthened. And to have had knowledge of a woman before the twentieth year they reckon among the most disgraceful acts; of which matter there is no concealment, because they bathe promiscuously in the rivers, and only use skins or small cloaks of deers' hides, a large portion of the body being in consequence naked. They do not pay much attention to agriculture, and a large portion of their food consists in milk, cheese, and flesh; nor has anyone a fixed quantity of land or his own individual limits; but the magistrates and the leading men each year apportion to the tribes and families, who have united together, as much land, and in the place in which they think proper, and the year after compel them to move elsewhere. For this enactment they advance many reasons-lest, seduced by long-continued custom, they may exchange their ardor in waging war for agriculture; lest they may be anxious to acquire extensive estates, and the more powerful drive the weaker from their possessions; lest they construct their houses with too great a desire to avoid cold and heat; lest the desire of wealth spring up, from which cause divisions and discords arise; and that they may keep the common people in a contented state of mind, when each sees his own means placed on an equality with those of the most powerful.

It is the greatest glory to the several states to have as wide deserts as possible around them, their frontiers having been laid waste. They consider this the real evidence of their prowess, that their neighbors should be driven out of their lands and abandon them, and that no one dare settle near them; at the same time they think that they shall be on that account the more secure, because they have removed the apprehension of a sudden incursion.

When a state either repels war waged against it, or wages it against another, magistrates are chosen to preside over that war, with such authority that they have the power of life and death. In peace there is no common magistrate, but the chiefs of provinces and cantons administer justice and determine controversies among their own people. Robberies which are committed beyond the boundaries of each state bear no infamy, and they avow that these are committed for the purpose of disciplining their youth and of preventing sloth. And when any of their chiefs has said in an assembly, "that he will be their leader, let those who are willing to follow give in their names," they who approve of both the enterprise and the man arise and promise their assistance, and are applauded by the people; such of them as have not followed him are accounted in the number of deserters and traitors, and confidence in all matters is afterward refused them. To injure guests they regard as impious; they defend from wrong those who have come to them for any purpose whatever, and esteem them inviolable; to them the houses of all are open, and maintenance is freely supplied.

There was formerly a time when the Gauls excelled the Germans in prowess and waged war on them offensively, and, on account of the great number of their people and the insufficiency of their land, sent colonies over the Rhine. Accordingly the Volcæ Tectosages seized on those parts of Germany which are the most fruitful, and lie around the Hercynian forest (which I perceive was known by report to Erastosthenes and some other Greeks, and which they called Orcynia), and settled there. Which nation to this time retains its position in those settlements, and has a very high character for justice and military merit ; now also they continue in the same scarcity, indigence, hardihood as the Germans, and use the same food and dress. But their proximity to the Province, and knowledge of commodities from countries beyond the sea, supply to the Gauls many things tending to luxury, as well as civilization. Accustomed by degrees to be overmatched and worsted in many engagements, they do not even compare themselves to the Germans in prowess.-Commentaries, VI,

CÆSAR WORSTED BY THE GAULS AT GERGOVIA.

The town wall was 1,200 paces distant from the plain and foot of the ascent, in a straight line, if no gap intervened; whatever circuit was added to this ascent, to make the hill easy, increased the length of the route. But almost in the middle of the hill the Gauls had previously built a wall six feet high, made of large stones and extending in length as far as the nature of the ground. permitted, as a barrier to retard the advance of our men ; and, leaving all the lower space empty, they had filled the upper part of the hill, as far as the wall of the town, with camps very close to one another. The soldiers, on the signal being given, quickly advance to this fortification, and passing over it make themselves masters. of the separate camps.

Cæsar, having accomplished the object which he had in view, ordered the signal to be sounded for a retreat; and the soldiers of the tenth legion, by which he was then accompanied, halted. But the soldiers of the other legions, not hearing the sound of the trumpet, because there was a very large valley between them, were however kept back by the tribunes of the soldiers and the lieutenants, according to Cæsar's orders; but being animated by the prospect of speedy victory, and the flight of the enemy, and the favorable battles of former periods, they thought nothing so difficult that their bravery could not accomplish it; nor did they put an end to the pursuit until they drew nigh to the wall of the town and the gates. But then, when a shout arose in every quarter of the city, those who were at a distance, being alarmed by the sudden tumult, fled hastily from the town, since they thought that the enemy were within the gates. The matrons began to cast their clothes and silver over the wall, and bending over as far as the lower part of the bosom, with outstretched hands, beseech the Romans to spare them, and not to sacrifice to their resentment even women and children, as they had done at Avaricum.

In the meantime those who had gone to the other part of the town to defend it, aroused by hearing the