gestible. (3) A sweet mucilage, which is more nutritious than starch, but is small in quantity, and renders the grain liable to the vinous and acetous fermentation. (4) A digestible, aromatic substance contained in the hulls, which consist of a fibrous matter. (5) Moisture, which is predominant even in the driest grain, and increases the weight of the mass, although it lessens the specific gravity; it affords no nourishment, hastens the decomposition of all kinds of grain, if they are not kept very dry, and influences germination. See articles under names of different cereals.

Grain Elevator, a structure equipped with elevating machinery for the purpose of loading, storing, and cleaning grain which is subsequently unloaded directly into railway cars, canal boats, or grain-carrying vessels for transportation.

It consists of a rectangular building or "house," surmounted by a smaller structure called the "cupola." The house is divided deep storage bins, while the cupola contains the machinery for operating the "elevator leg," the turnhead spouts, the garners, the weighing machines, and the cleaning machinery. It is usually constructed of timber with brick outside walls for the house, and corrugated sheet iron for the roof and walls

foot of which extends below the floors of the bins, while its head reaches to the topmost story of the cupola. Within this framing a belt conveyor, made up of several thicknesses of canvas and sheet rubber, usually 36 inches wide and three quarters of an inch thick, is operated by steam power. The belt, which is of the endless type and carries a series of metallic buckets, passes over two pulleys, one at the foot and the other at the head of the leg and lifts the grain to the turnhead spouts in the cupola. Unloading and storing is accomplished as follows: The grain-laden cars are usually run up along the side of the building so car is placed directly under that each elevator leg. Two men in each car, operating shovels by ropes from a steam-driven shovel shaft, shovel the grain into the pits of the elevator leg, and thus fill the buckets of the conveyor, which, operating continuously, carries it up to the cupola, where the buckets are tipped over automatically and their contents discharged into the turnhead spouts. From these the grain passes by gravity into the garners, thence into the hoppers of the weighing machines, which are usually gauged exactly for 100 pounds, thence to the cleaners if desirable, and finally through a system of spouts to the storage

bins.

an

When used for unloading grain from ships. to railway cars the elevator legs are placed outside the house and their feet lowered into the hold of the vessel through the hatchways. The conveyors carry the grain to the turnhead spouts from which it passes to the storage bins, and thence through the floor valves of the bins to the cars placed beneath them. Under such conditions they are called "marine elevators," and when the arrangement is mounted on a barge or float to permit of its being moved from place to place, it is commonly known as a "floating elevator."

of the cupola. Many elevators, practically fireproof, are built with solid brick walls enclosing steel bins surmounted by steel framed cupolas roofed with terra-cotta or sheet iron, while the bins of some of the European structures are made of steel skeletons embedded in concrete. In the United States further protection is obtained by housing the steel storage bins and the operating machinery in separate fireproof buildings, the grain being handled between them by a system of pneumatic conveyors. The elevator leg consists of a framing the

To unload grain from an elevator into the grain-carrying vessels of the Great Lakes, the vessel is made fast alongside of the house, and its hatches being removed, the grain is poured by gravity in a perfect torrent into its hold through great spouts which extend to the hatchways from the floor valves of the bins. The discharging capacity of these spouts ranges from 12,000 to 60,000 bushels per hour, and load vessels of the greatest capacity in two or three hours.

The loading and storing capacities of individual elevators vary greatly according to their location. Innumerable small structures capable of handling only a few thousands of bushels each are located along the lines of railway traversing the grain-bearing regions of the Western States; but those at the large centres of flour manufacture and grain transportation, such as Minneapolis, Duluth, and Chicago, are of mammoth proportions, with individual capacities ranging from 500,000 to 5,000,000 bushels. One of the medium sized elevators at Duluth is 285 feet long, 85 feet wide, and 150 feet high. Nine belt conveyors driven by a 200 horse-power steam engine lift the grain to a height of 145 feet to the turnhead spouts. Each belt carries 125 buckets having a capacity of one peck each, so that the total load at any working instant is about 270 bushels or 15,000 pounds, representing an unloading capacity of 12,000 bushels per

hour. The storage bins are each 60 feet deep by 20 x 10 feet cross section, with a capacity of 12,000 cubic feet, thus giving the elevator a total storing capacity of 1,500,000 bushels.

The cost and rendering of elevator service is fixed and regulated by different conditions in the different States. In Illinois the elevators are compelled to receive and store, up to their full capacity and without discrimination, all the grain brought to them for that purpose, provided it is free from disease or other impurities. The maximum charge allowed for this service is 14 cents per bushel for the first 10 days or any portion thereof, and 1⁄2 cent per bushel for each subsequent 10-day interval. The elevators at each of the three cities mentioned have a total capacity of about 35.000,000 bushels, and each group handles about 70,000,000 bushels of grain annually.

WILLIAM MOREY, JR., C.E., Consulting Civil and Mechanical Engineer, New York City.

Grain, Handling and Transportation of, The methods of handling the grain produced in the Northwest, the various stages through which it passes from the field to the consumer, the means and appliances employed and incidentally the volume of grain handled, and the cost and method of transportation are important factors in the agricultural development of the Great West.

The States of Minnesota and the Dakotas are the spring wheat States, producing the bulk of that incomparable variety in the United States. The process of seeding and harvesting is much the same with the small farmer with his 160 acres as the large one with his thousands of acres. Both use similar machinery, differing only in the amount used. It is a self-evident fact that in the production of grain and the manufacture of flour, as well as in all other manufacturing industries, the profit depends in a very large degree upon the volume of business done. The tendency in all lines has been to cheapen the cost by increasing the volume.

Minnesota and the Dakotas produce a yearly average of 133,000,000 bushels of wheat, 55.000.000 bushels of corn, 87,000,000 bushels of oats, 1,600,000 bushels of rye, and 22,000,000 bushels of barley. At most towns in these spring wheat States, along the lines of railroads are small elevators, to which the farmer takes his grain either to sell, store, or ship, according to his inclination or ability. These elevators receive the grain for storage or for shipment to the primary or semiterminal elevators at Minneapolis or Duluth. Well-informed farmers and dealers estimate the cost of production of a bushel of wheat to be from 40 to 45 cents. The average cost of transferring the grain from the farm or initial point of shipment to either Minneapolis or Duluth (rates being about the same) is about 10 cents per bushel. The charges for storing grain at these points are about three fourths of a cent per bushel for the first 15 days, including cleaning.

The average yearly receipts of wheat in round numbers at Minneapolis for the last 12 years were 73,000,000 bushels, of which about 54.000.000 bushels were manufactured into flour. The elevator capacity at Minneapolis is 36,000,000 bushels.

State Inspection.- In Minnesota the State in

spection of grain is accomplished by well-qualified men having a technical knowledge of their work and experienced as well, under rules prescribed by the State Board of Appeals. The board of inspection is composed of six members, three of whom are located at Minneapolis and three at Duluth. If the inspector's report is not satisfactory to the buyer or seller, the aggrieved party can appeal to the Appeal Board, whose decision is final. The mode of inspection is as follows: The first step of the inspector is to go with the sealer, who opens the car, breaking the railroad seal for the inspector, who enters the car, and takes several samples of grain by probing to the bottom of a car in several places with an instrument provided for that purpose. From these samples he mixes and makes a general sample, from which his report as to grade under the rules is made. The car is then resealed with a State seal, the railroad seal number and the seal number substituted by the State having been duly recorded by the sealer.

Weighing. After the cars of grain have been transferred to the elevators, the grain doors are removed, which allows the grain to fall into pits under the cars. The assistant weighers take the number and initial of the car, see that no grain is left in the car and that the shipment has been clevated to the scale floor at the top of the elevator. The grain is then carefully weighed and distributed to the different storage bins of the elevator and, after cleaning, is ready for shipment eastward. The charge for inspecting and The record weighing a car of grain is 50 cents. of every car inspected and weighed is carefully preserved by the two departments, each of which gives to every owner or agent a certificate of grade and weight. These certificates form the basis of settlement of the consignor with the consignee, the freight bills of the railroad companies and supply the necessary information to the grain registrar, whose duties will be more clearly defined hereafter. The State employs a scale expert, whose duty it is to examine and test the scales used at Minneapolis and Duluth, to see that they are in perfect condition at all times.

Grain Registration.— In those elevators termed regular, under the rules of the exchanges at Minneapolis and Duluth, great care is used to prevent any irregularities as to grade and quantity. After the grain has been inspected and weighed as before described, and the elevators have reported to the State registrar, he issues certificates which show the name of the elevator, the date the grain was received, the number and initial of the car, the number of bushels and the grade. These receipts must be returned to the registrar and canceled before the grain can be shipped. The registered receipts are mainly used as collateral upon which to obtain money at the banks, and are considered and approximate as nearly to perfect securities as any found in the West. Many years of experience have proven that this standard of securities has been very high and safe.

Duluth as a Semi-terminal Point.- Duluth is a primary or semi-terminal market, the same as Minneapolis. The system of inspection, weighing and registration is identically the same; but Duluth, being the point where rails and water meet, and being Minnesota's only lake port, the method of shipment of grain is different from that at Minneapolis. The elevator capacity at

Duluth is 34,000,000 bushels, the average receipts of wheat for past 12 years being in round numbers 62,000,000 bushels, of which some 8,000,000 bushels are manufactured into flour at the Duluth-Superior mills. The balance is mostly consumed in eastern markets, although some years a million bushels have been exported.

Water Transportation.— On the Great Lakes large steel freighters carry the products of the prairie farms of the West at greater reduced cost than in years past. The evolution is from the little 100-ton steam-barge of 30 years ago to the 10,000-ton steamer of to-day, and it frequently happens that vessels loading at the elevators at the head of the Lakes, take at one load all the grain grown on a whole township of land.

The question of cheap transportation eastward of the varied and enormous products of the Northwest has been the subject of congressional legislation for many years; and that it was wisely considered by that body is evidenced by the governmental appropriations of over $10,000,000 since 1881 for the purpose of building locks, widening and deepening canals and improving the channel through the river at Sault Ste. Marie. That the full benefit of the improvements at the "Soo" be fully realized to the end that vessels might load to their full capacity, an appropriation was made a few years ago of $3,130,000 for deepening the channels in the joint harbor of Duluth and Superior, to_20 feet, thus enabling vessels trading between Duluth and Buffalo to load to that depth. The benefit of this is shown by the fact that the average size of vessels trading at the head of Lake Superior has grown from 336 tons in 1885 to 1,940 tons in 1902. With economy in production by the aid of improved labor-saving machinery, and larger and better vessels operated at less sums proportionately, it is no wonder that the cost of seeding and harvesting the grain and transporting it to the seaboard has been reduced to the minimum.

Loss in Transit.- The average loss per 1,000 bushels of wheat in transfer from Duluth or Chicago to Buffalo in 1902 was 14 pounds, or about one peck for each 1,000 bushels, showing that the weighing of grain by the large elevators has been reduced to a science. Quick despatch at the Duluth elevators during the season of large receipts is proverbial and it is frequently the case that some of these large vessels load at the rate of 60,000 bushels per hour. The average freight rates on grain from Duluth to Buffalo for the last six years has been 22 mills per

bushel. From Buffalo to New York the rates for the same period have averaged about three and one third cents.

With closer trade relations with Canada by removing the duty on wheat, the amount of grain that would find its way east via the Great Lakes would be greatly augmented. About 75 per cent of the grain going east by water from Duluth, goes to Buffalo, 11 per cent to Chicago and Lake Erie ports, and 14 per cent to Canadian ports. H. B. MOORE,

Secretary Duluth Board of Trade.

Grain Insects. Stored grain, corn, nuts, and the like, are frequently infested and injured by various insects. About 40 kinds of weevils (q.v.) lay their eggs upon dry grain, and their grubs bore into and devour the kernel, so that when they are numerous great damage may

ensue. It has been estimated that the annual loss in the United States from this cause alone is about $40,000,000. The most important of these pests are the granary-weevil (Calandra granaria) and the rice-weevil (C. oryza). The former is wingless, evidence that it was domesticated ages ago. It multiplies so rapidly, developing from egg to adult in about six weeks, that five or six generations might be produced annually in a warm temperature. The rice-weevil has well-developed wings, which it seldom uses, showing a strong tendency to become wingless in time. Much injury to stored grain is also caused by other beetles, particularly by three species (Silvanus surinamensis, Cathartus gemellatus and C. advena), but they usually follow the attacks of other insects. The cadelle (Tenebroides mauritanicus) is to be included in this category, as it has a pernicious habit of gnawing into kernels of grain and destroying the embryo or germ. Great harm in granaries is done also by small moths related to the clothes-moth, whose caterpillars bind the grains together, forming clots, which both spoil the edible quality of the cereal, and clog mill machinery. The most familiar of these is the European Sitotroga cerealella, often called Angoumois grain-moth, but known as "flyweevil" in the southern States, where it is so prevalent that grain can nowhere be stored for a long time. Another imported grain-moth, troublesome in the United States since about 1890, is Ephestia kühinella; and a third (Tinea granella), is especially harmful to wheat in Europe, but not prevalent in America. Injury by the Angoumois grain-moth and the rice-weevil, which obtain entrance to the grain in the fields, can be largely prevented by early harvesting and by threshing as soon as possible. The standard remedy for all grain insects, however, is bisulphid of carbon, applied at the rate of one or two ounces to every hundred pounds of infested grain, which is effective in proportion to the tight closing of the bins. Exposure should last as long as possible, unless the seed is desired for planting, when an exposure of 24 hours is sufficient and will not detract from the germinating power. In buildings that cannot be tightly closed a larger quantity of the insecticide must be used, and repetition of treatment is necessary in warm weather at intervals of six weeks or more. Frequent stirring about of the grain is helpful against these insects; and granaries whenever emptied should be thoroughly cleaned and whitewashed. See FLOUR

AND MEAL INSECTS.

Grain-poisoning. See ERGOTISM.

Graining. (1) In leather manufacture, the process of rubbing leather with a board to raise the grain. The leather having been shaved to a thickness at the beam, and daubed, is hung up to dry, and is then folded, grain side in, and rubbed on the flesh side with a pommel or crippler to give the leather a granular appearance and render it supple. The hide is then extended and rubbed on the grain side. This is termed bruising. Also a process for giving markings to the surface of leather to imitate the wrinkled appearance of morocco, hog-skin, and some other leathers.

(2) In painting, the imitation of the natural grain of wood by means of tools. Combs,

brushes, rollers, and the corner of a folded rag are used in making the various patterns.

(3) In lithography, a mode of giving a certain texture to the face of a stone. One stone is laid on another with a quantity of sifted sand of a given fineness, and by a peculiar oscillation and gradual progression the surface is cut into a set of fine prominences more or less deep and distant, according to the character of the work to be placed on the stone.

Grakle, grǎk'l, the name of several kinds of birds. In the United States the blackbirds (especially the larger ones) of the family Icterida. (See BLACKBIRD.) In India and eastward a myna (q.v.) or some related bird formerly classified in the miscellaneous group

Gracula.

Gramineæ, grã-min'e-ē. See Grasses.

Grammar, in its widest sense is the science of language, treating of the words of which language is composed, and their mutual relations when combined in a sentence for the expression of thought. Universal grammar is the science of verbal expression throughout all languages; comparative grammar studies the words and grammatical forms of a group of kindred languages the Aryan group, for example; a particular grammar deals with the words and grammatical forms of a single language. But the study of words, their meanings, their origins and their histories may be regarded as belonging to lexicography rather than to grammar proper: the proper field of grammar would then be the study of the methods by which the relations between words in a sentence and between sentence and sentence are determined. The English language as it exists differs in important respects from the Germanic dialects from which it is sprung: it has lost great part of its native Vocabulary and has taken to itself a very considerable portion of the vocabulary of Latin, either direct from that language or through the French. And its mode of expressing the relations between words has been immensely simplified by eliminating the inflexions which in those early dialects were very numerous. The grammatical rules which regulated English speech in the several stages of its development became antiquated as the change proceeded, and now English is less under control of grammatical rules than perhaps any of the other languages of culture.

Here comes into view the important difference which exists between the languages which express by inflexions the mutual relations of words in a sentence, and the languages which indicate those relations merely by the position of the words. English is the type of a language almost without inflexions: Latin is an example of one that abounds in inflexions. English has but one case inflexion of nouns, the s of the possessive case; and an objective case inflexion of pronouns: he, him; they, them; who, whom, etc. As Marsh observes (Lectures on the English Language, 393) this inflected possessive of nouns expresses in modern English almost exclusively the notion of property or appurtenance and applies to persons or to animated creatures; hence we say "a man's hand," "a horse's hoof," but not "the house's roof." Though the Germanic dialects from which English is sprung had inflexions of adjectives, both for gender and number, no trace of them now remains in Eng

- GRAMMAR

lish.

are

In Latin, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, all have numerous inflexions to denote all manner of relations between the words of a sentence. An adjective is of the gender of the noun to which it belongs: Good man is bonus vir, good girl, bona puella, and these two phrases in the nominative case plural boni viri, bona puellæ. Declinable parts of speech in Latin have six cases in singular and plural, viz.: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, vocative, ablative. The verb in English has but two inflections, the d or ed of the past indefinite or præterite, as, sail, sailed, and the participial inflexion ing. But the Latin verb has four modes, indicative, subjunctive, imperative, infinitive, also present and future participles and the two forms called "supines": all these in the active voice, and all constituting inflexions. The tenses, each with a distinctive inflexion for the three persons and for singular and plural are the present, imperfect, perfect, pluperfect, future, and future-perfect: not all of these tenses run through all the modes. In the passive voice the perfect, pluperfect, and future-perfect are not inflexional.

English being practically uninflected, position in the sentence determines the mutual relations of the words. In the sentence "Titus teaches Julia the letters," no different arrangement of the words can be made without rendering the whole unintelligible. But convert the sentence into Latin, and in whatsoever order the words be written, the sense is ever the same: "Titus Juliam literas docet," or "Literas Juliam docet Titus," etc. Again, "Proteus drove his flock to view the high mountains" (mountain tops)Proteus pecus egit altos visere montes; no change of position of the words affects the sense. In passing it may be noted that Horace's phrase, pecus egit visere," drove (his) flock to see, is in Latin a poetical license, and in prose the idea would be differently expressed: but the phrase in English is grammatically correct both for prose and poetry.

English knows nothing of grammatical gender: in other languages grammatical gender attaches to all nouns, whether distinguished by sex or not. The modern Latinish languages, French, Spanish, and Italian, attribute gender, masculine or feminine, to all nouns; but Latin has also a neuter gender. In Latin domus (house) is feminine, murus (wall) masculine, jumentum (beast of burden) neuter; and of course adjectives qualifying such nouns must agree with them in gender. In English there is a tendency even toward eliminating nouns feminine which designate women as engaged in sundry employments-that of instruction, authorship, etc., and to substitute for instructress, authoress, etc., instructor, author, doctor; so, too, women are masters of arts, bachelors of arts, etc.

The subjunctive mode of verbs in English has gone almost quite out of use. In Latin the subjunctive form possessed very great importance in defining with precision a writer's or a speaker's meaning. A notable peculiarity of English grammar is that it permits a word to serve both as noun and adjective, as when we say a sword thrust, a marble building: such phrases would be rendered into Latin by gladii ictus (thrust of sword), ædificium marmoreum; rendered literally, they would be unintelligible.

Equally peculiar to the grammar of English is the use of nouns as verbs, as "to shovel snow," "to pen a letter"; or even of proper names, as "to burk," to "boycott"; and "macadamize," might better have been "macadam." English cannot be compared with Latin grammar with regard to the use of the definite article, for Latin has not the article: but when English is compared with other modern European languages, as German, French, Italian, etc., the English article is seen to be a "definite" article indeed. In those languages such words as time, life, humanity, patriotism, always have the article, but in English only when a definite time, life, etc., are in question.

JOSEPH FITZGERALD, Author of Word and Phrase. Grammar-schools. See EDUCATION, SEC

Gram'ophone. A sound-reproducing apparatus invented by Emile Berliner. In principle it is similar to the phonograph (q.v.) and the graphophone (q.v.), but differs from these by employing a glass disk coated with lampblack instead of a cylinder of wax for its record. This disk carries a stylus connecting with a diaphragm which is vibrated by the sound-waves, and records those vibrations upon the lampblack surface in the form of a long spiral, as the disk is revolved in a horizontal plane. Unlike the record cylinders of the phonograph or graphophone, the disk cannot be used directly to reproduce the sounds thus recorded, and for that purpose a corresponding disk of hard rubber, prepared from a metal die photo-mechanically etched from the original markings on the lampblack coating of the glass disk is employed.

Gram'pians, Grampian Hills, or Grampian Mountains. (1) The mountain system of Scotland, extending across the country from northeast to southwest, for a distance of about 150 miles, and separating the Highlands from the Lowlands. Its limits are not well defined, but it may be said to commence near the southwest end of Loch Awe, on the west coast of Argyleshire, where the main ridge runs, in a well-marked course, along the northern boundaries of Perthshire to Cairn Ealer, where it separates into two distinct branches one stretching north-northeast on the north side of the Dee, and terminating near Huntly; the other running nearly due east on the south side of that river, and terminating in the neighborhood of Stonehaven. With the exception of Ben Nevis, the Grampians comprise all the highest mountains in Scotland. Among these are Ben

Cruachan, 3,689 feet; Ben Lomond, 3,192 feet; Ben Lawers, 3,984 feet; Schichallion, 3,547 feet Ben Macdhui, 4,296 feet; Cairngorm, 4,084 feet; Cairntoul, 4,241 feet. The more remarkable passes are those of Aberfoyle, Glenshee, and Killiecrankie.

(2) A low range of mountains in the western part of Victoria, in Australia, are called Grampians.

Gram'pus, or Cowfish, a genus of porpoises of the family Delphinida. The species inhabiting the North Atlantic (Grampus griseus), reaches a length of about 12 feet. The head is globose, with a slight indication of a beak; the lower jaw shorter than the upper; dorsal fin high and falcate. The upper surfaces of the body are gray in color, the belly grayish white. The body is usually marked with numerous, irregular, light-colored lines which are believed to be due to the attacks of the cuttlefish. The young have the front of the head yellowish white, and six or seven vertical white lines on the sides. There are from 6 to 14 rather large, blunt teeth in the lower jaw, but none in the upper jaw. On the Atlantic coast of North America the grampus occurs singly or in small schools, ranging southward to New Jersey. It also occurs on the coasts of Europe. A closely allied species (G. Stearnsii) inhabits the North Pacific, and the genus has been reported from the Cape of Good Hope and New Zealand. The grampus feeds upon cuttlefish, and yields oil of superior quality. The name grampus (from the Italian gran pesce, meaning simply "large fish") is applied also to various other cetaceans, and especially to the killer whale (Orcinus orca) and to the blackfish (Globicephala).

Gran Chaco, grän chä'kō, El, a territory of Argentina, Bolivia, and Paraguay, S. A., bounded south and west by Santiago del Estero, and west by Tucuman and Salta. Area, about 275,000 square miles. It is watered by the Vermejo and Pilcomayo and numerous other branches of the Paraguay. In the west it is intersected by spurs of the Andes, and in the east forms extensive plains and marshes, with tracts at times entirely inundated, while in the south are vast sandy deserts, interspersed with salt pools. It is thinly inhabited by Indians, who live chiefly by hunting and fishing. In some parts the forests are extensive, and the vegetation rich. Pop. 10,422.

Granada, gră-nädạ (Sp. giả-nä’dã), (r) An ancient kingdom, subsequently a province of southern Spain, bounded by Andalusia, Murcia, and the Mediterranean. It was part of the Roman province of Boetica, and after the Saracen invasion became an independent Moorish kingdom until it was conquered by Ferdinand and Isabella in 1492, when it became one of the 13 old provinces; it had an area of 11,100 square miles, and since 1833 is divided into the provinces of Granada, Almeria, and Malaga. (2) The modern province, with a coast line of 66 miles on the Mediterranean, has an area of 4,928 square miles. It is picturesquely diversified by mountains and valleys, the chief range being the Sierra Nevada, which attains a maximum altitude of 11,781 feet in the Cerro de Mulhacen, the loftiest summit in Spain. The province watered by the Guadalfeo, the Jenil, and Darro is comparatively fertile and well cultivated; and