G

seventh letter of the English alphabet and of other alphabets derived from the Latin. In very early Latin, G stood for the proper g-sound (g hard, as in go) and also for the k-sound of C, as in cup; afterward the k-sound was represented by K, while G continued to represent the sound of G hard; but K did not remain long in the Latin alphabet, being superseded by C (always hard and equivalent to K). Both in Greek and Latin the gamma (T, Ġ) was always the hard guttural in whatever situation, and hence geographia was pronounced gheographia, genus ghenus, etc. The softening of g-hard to when g precedes e, i, or y, began to prevail in the 6th century of our era, and it persists in the modern languages derived from Latin and in our own. In languages having words derived independently by each from some common stock, for example, the Indo-European languages, the interchange of c-hard, g-hard, k, and the aspirate gutturals ch, gh, is very common; examples: Eng. kin, Lat. genus, Gr. genos; Gr. chen, Ger. gans, Eng. goose; Gr. gnonai, archaic Lat. gnosco, Ger. kennen, Eng. ken; Lat. hesternus, Gr. chthes, Ger. gestern, Eng. yester: the same equivalence of g and y is seen in Ger. gelb, Eng. yellow; Ger. gähnen, Eng. yawn; Ger. garn, Eng. yarn. In French words of Teutonic origin an original w is often represented by gu (equal to g-hard), thus Wilhelm becomes Guillaume; Ger. weise, Fr. guise; Teuton werra, Eng. war, Fr. guerre.

Gabb, William More, American palæontologist: b. Philadelphia 1839; d. 1878. In 1862-5 he was director of the paleontological section of J. D. Whitney's geological survey of California, and later made surveys in Santo Domingo (1868) and Costa Rica (1873). His publications include: Vols. I. and II. of the 'Geological Survey of California) (1864); and monographs on the topography and ethnology of Costa Rica and the geology and topography of Santo Domingo in the Transactions' of the American Philosophical Society and Petermann's 'Mittheilungen.'

Gabbro, gab'rō, a general name for a large group of evenly crystalline igneous rocks, composed, typically, of plagioclase and pyroxene. Gabbros show by analysis much the same composition as basalts; the silica ranging from 46 to 59 per cent. They may be regarded as plutonic basalts, basalt magmas which have cooled at great depths. Under the general term gabbro, are included anorthosites, abundant in Canada and the Adirondacks, high in silica and composed almost wholly of crystalline labrador

ite; true gabbros; norites, composed of plagioclase and orthorhombic pyroxene. With decreasing pyroxene and increasing olivine gabbros grade into peridotiles. Gabbros are heavy, dark-colored, usually greenish, rocks. They occur in the Adirondacks, in the neighborhood of Baltimore, Md., and particularly in the highlands along the north shore of Lake Superior, from Duluth to the international boundary. The gabbro near Duluth has this composition: SiO2 49.15; Al2O3 21.90; F12O:6.60; FeO 4.54; CaO 8.22; MgO 3.03; Na2O 3.83; K2O 1.61. See BASALT.

Gable, the triangular or quadrangular end of a house or other building, from the cornice or eaves to the top, and distinguished from a pediment by this, among other things, that it has no cornices, while a pediment has three. The word is also applied to the highly decorated canopy or screen which in Gothic church architecture rises over some doors or windows. The wall of a house which is surmounted by a gable is called the gable-end. In modern towns the gable-ends of houses are usually at right angles to the line of the street, but in the Middle Ages the reverse was usually the case, the gableends being turned toward the street. Many old towns in France, Belgium, and Germany, are still to be seen with this peculiarity, and some even in Britain. In Scotland, a wall separating two houses, and common to both, is called a mutual gable, and according to Scotch law such a gable is the property of the builder, who can therefore prevent the owner of an adjoining property from using the support of his gable, unless he pays half the cost of erecting it.

Gaboriau, Emile, ā-mēl gä-bō-rē-ō, French writer of detective stories: b. Saujon, CharenteInférieure, France, 9 Nov. 1835; d. Paris 28 Sept. 1873. His early years were a succession of vicissitudes; the army, the law, and even the Church, were in turn the objects of his inconstant attentions till at last when he had already contributed to some of the smaller Parisian papers, he leaped into fame at a single bound with his story 'L'Affaire Lerouge) (1866), in the feuilleton to 'Le Pays.' It was quickly followed by 'Le Dossier 113 (1867); Le Crime d'Orcival' (1868); 'Monsieur Lecoq' Vie Infernale (1870) La Clique Dorée (1869); Les Esclaves de Paris' (1869); 'La (1871); 'La Corde au Cou) (1873); L'Argent des Autres (1874); and 'La Dégringolade' (1876).

Gabriac, Paul Joseph de Cadoine, pōl zhō-zěf de kä-dwän gä-brē-äk, MARQUIS DE, French diplomatist: b. Heidelberg, Baden, I March 1792; d. Paris 12 June 1865. He was

consul-general in New York in 1812-14; appointed minister to Stockholm in 1823; and minister to Brazil in 1826. While in Brazil he induced all the other states in South America to adopt the French maritime law. He was created a peer in 1841, and made a life senator in 1853. His publications include: The Question of Brazil (1829); The Republics of South America Considered in Their Future' (1851); 'King Pedro I., Notes and Personal Recollections (1854).

Gabriel (Heb. "hero of God"), among the post-exilic Jews, one of the seven archangels (q.v.). In the book of Daniel and in the third gospel he is the messenger and interpreter of God. The rabbins represented him as the angel of death to the Israelites, as Azrael was to the Mohammedans. According to the Talmud he is the prince of fire, who presides over the thunderstorms and the autumnal ripening of fruits. By the command of God he set fire to the temple before it could be burned down by the soldiers of Nebuchadnezzar. According to the teaching of the Koran he is one of the four angels, of which the other three are Michael, Uriel, and Raphael, most highly favored by God, and dictated the Koran to Mohammed.

Gabriel, Brothers of Saint, an order of the Roman Catholic Church in France, founded by the Abbé Deshayes in 1835. Its object was stated as the education of the young, especially

deaf-mutes and the blind. In 1880 the order reported 122 elementary schools, 3 boarding schools, 8 schools for deaf-mutes, and 2 for the blind. Its headquarters are at Saint Laurentsur-Sèvre, La Vendée.

Gabriels, Henry, American Roman Cath

olic prelate: b. Wannegem-Lede, Belgium,

6 Oct. 1838. He studied classics in the colleges of Audenarde and Saint Nicholas and theology in the Seminary of Ghent, where he was ordained priest, 21 Sept. 1861. He continued his studies at the University of Louvain, from which institution he received the degree of S. T. L. in 1864 and the honorary degree of Doctor in Theology in 1882. When the Theological Seminary of Troy, N. Y., was founded, Dr. Gabriels was one of the four priests sent from Belgium to manage it. He was diocesan examiner for New York and Albany, vicar-general of Ogdensburg and Burlington and one of the secretaries of the Third Plenary Council of Baltimore, the decrees of which he assisted in formulating. For 20 years Dr. Gabriels was rector of Troy Seminary and for nearly 30 years its professor of dogmatic theology, Church history and Hebrew. On 21 Dec. 1891, Pope Leo XIII. appointed him bishop of Ogdensburg and he was consecrated at Albany, N. Y., 5 May 1892. The diocese of Ogdensburg at present (1905) has a Catholic population of about 84,000; 121 priests; 138 churches; 16 parochial schools; 5 hospitals; 2 orphanages, etc. King Leopold of Belgium has recently conferred upon him the decoration of the Royal Order of Leopolds, in recognition of the services he has rendered the Belgium Church and people, particularly by his writings.

Gabriel's_Insurrection, an attempted slave rising near Richmond, Va., in 1800, headed by a slave named Gabriel, called also "General Gabriel" and "Jack Bowler." He belonged to

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a planter named Thomas Prosser, and about 24; tall, powerful, and noted as a fighter. He drew about a thousand negroes into a plot to attack Richmond by night, massacre the inhabitants, seize the arsenal and arming themselves effectively, rouse a general insurrection. One August night he collected his forces, armed them with scythe blades, and marched toward the city. Meanwhile a negro had disclosed the plot; James Monroe, then governor, had ordered out the militia; a creek in Gabriel's way proved to be unfordable, and hearing that the citizens were in arms, the whole force dispersed to the swamps and woods. They were hunted out, and many hanged, including Gabriel.

Gade, Niels Wilhelm, nēls vĭl'hělm gä'dė, Danish composer: b. Copenhagen 22 Feb. 1817; d. there 21 Dec. 1890. In 1841, by his overture entitled, Echoes of Ossian,' he gained in Copenhagen the prize of the Musical Union. He was supported during his studies abroad by a royal stipend, and in 1844 was appointed to succeed Mendelssohn in the direction of the Gewandhaus concerts at Leipsic. In 1850 he was appointed musical director to the king of Denmark, and in 1876 received a life pension. His works, which are Mendelssohnian in character, include seven symphonies, several overtures, sonatas, quintets, etc.; a lyrical drama, 'Comala'; a religious cantata, The Crusaders'; an opera, The Nibelungen'; etc.

Gadfly. See HORSEFLY.

Gadidæ, găd'i-de, a family of fishes, the cods, sub-order Anacanthini (spineless fishes), with ventral fins attached to the breast or throat. The body is rather long, a little compressed, and covered with small, soft scales; the teeth are in several rows; the gill covers, which are large, have seven rays; the median fins are generally very large, and divided into several portions. They are voracious fishes. They are found chiefly in the depths of the colder seas, and are largely used for the food of man. Fossil remains are rare, but scattered bones have been found as far back as the Eocene. See COD; HADDOCK; LING; etc.

Gadolin, gä'dō-lēn, John, Finnish chemist: b. Abo, Finland, 5 June 1760; d. Wirmo, Finland, 15 Aug. 1852. He studied chemistry under Bergman and in 1797 was appointed professor of chemistry in Abo-an office which he held till 1822. He devoted himself to investigations on mineral and metallurgic subjects. But the research for which he is specially remembered was upon a black mineral found in the porcelain feldspar quarry at Ytterby, near Stockholm, by Arhenius, of which an account had been published in 1788. In 1794 he read a paper to the Academy of Sciences, and showed that it contained a new kind of earth. This discovery was subsequently confirmed by Ekeberg, who called the earth yttria, and the mineral gadolinite, after its first investigator. The yttria was afterward shown to be a mixture of several earths.

Gads'den, Christopher, American patriot: b. Charleston, S. C., 1724; d. there 28 Aug. 1805. He was educated in England; returned to the United States in 1741 and later engaged in business in Philadelphia; was a member of the first Colonial Congress which convened in New York in October 1765, and was also a member of the first Continental Congress which assem

bled in Philadelphia in 1774. He joined the American army as colonel at the beginning of the Revolution, and was promoted brigadiergeneral in 1776.

part in the sale Santa Anna, in 1855, was banished from his country as a traitor. On the part of the United States, the Senate made some modifications in the original treaty and then ratified it. On 10 June 1854 it was finally proclaimed. Consult Haswell, Treaties and Conventions.'

Gadsden Treaty. See ANNEXATION; GADSDEN PURCHASE.

Gadsden, Ala., town and county-seat of Etowah County, on the Gadsden and Attalla Union, the Louisville and Nashville, and other railroads, 60 miles northeast of Birmingham. It is dominated by Lookout Mountain, on the north bank of the Coosa River which gives its name to the rich coal and iron mines in the vicinity. There are several steam-mills which manufacture considerable quantities of yellowpine lumber. Further industries include steel and wire-nail mills, cotton mills, a pipe works, a car and foundry establishment, a pressed-brick plant, a cotton-seed oil mill and ginnery, and coal and iron interests. There are 15 churches, a national and a state bank, and two newspapers, a daily and a semi-weekly. Pop. (1900) 4,282.

Gadsden Purchase, The, a tract of territory, embracing 45,535 square miles, which was purchased by the United States from Mexico in 1854. This region, which is bounded on the north by the Gila River, on the east by the Rio Grande, and on the west by the Colorado, was acquired by treaty and the payment of $10,000,000, and is now included in the southern part of the Territories of Arizona and New Mexico. It is called the Gadsden Purchase after James Gadsden (q.v.), United States minister to Mexico in 1853, by whom, in December of that year, the treaty of sale was negotiated with Santa Anna (q.v.). Issues growing out of the execution of the treaty of GuadalupeHidalgo (q.v.) made this negotiation a matter of great importance, as well as a business of much difficulty. Disputes had arisen concerning the boundary line between Chihuahua and New Mexico, involving the possession of the Mesilla Valley, of which, though claimed by the United States, the Mexicans took armed possession. The 11th article of the treaty, imposing upon the United States the obligation to restrain the Indian marauders on the Mexican frontier, had been neglected, and the reclamations in conse quence amounted to between $15,000,000 and $30,000,000. By Gadsden's treaty that article was abrogated and a new boundary was agreed upon, while Mexico also agreed to forego all claims against the United States for damages on account of Indian depredations between the years 1848-53. The settlement of the boundary dispute was considered in this country to be of greater moment than the requisition of the land, which was thought to be of little or no value for cultivation; and it was in the minds of enterprising Americans that through this region the Southern Pacific Railroad, already projected, might find an advantageous route, as in fact it did. In Mexico the transaction was vigorously opposed, and on account of his

place is called Falstaff's Inn. It is interesting in modern times for Gadshill Place, opposite the hill, which was long the residence of Charles Dickens and was the home in which he died.

Gadski, Johanna, yō-hän'nä gädz'kē, German opera singer: b. Anclam, Prussia, 1871. She received her musical training in Stettin, made her début in opera in New York, and appeared as Brünhiide and in numerous other Wagnerian parts. She made a concert-tour in America in 1898–9.

Gad'wall, or Gray Duck, a migratory wild duck (Chaule lasmus streperus) found on all the four continents. It is less in size than the mallard, and mainly black, brown, and white in color. It frequents western marshes in small flocks, but is rare east of the Alleghany Mountains. As a table delicacy it is highly prized.

Gæa, je'a, or Ge, jē, in Greek mythology, the goddess of the earth. She appears in Hesiod as the first-born of Chaos, and the mother of Uranus and Pontus. She also bore the Titans, Cyclops, Erinyes, Giants, etc. As the vapors which were supposed to produce divine inspiration rose from the earth, Gæa came to be regarded as an oracular divinity; the oracles at Delphi and Olympia were believed to have once belonged to her. Her worship extended over all Greece, black female lambs being offered on her altars. She was also the goddess of marriage, and again of death and the lower world. Rome Gæa was worshipped as Tellus.

At

Gaedertz, gěd'èrts, Karl Theodor, German poet: b. Lübeck 8 Jan. 1855. In 1880 he obtained a post in the Royal Library of Berlin, of which he became chief librarian in 1900. His poems in Low German include Tulklapp' (1879) and 'Eine Komödie' (2d ed. 1881).

Gæl, gal, the name of a branch of the Celts inhabiting the Highlands of Scotland, Ireland, and the Isle of Man. Gadhel, or Gæl, is the only name by which those who speak the Gaelic language are known to themselves. By way of distinction the Highlanders of Scotland call themselves Gæl Albinnich (Gæls of Albin) and the Celtic population of Ireland call themselves Gæl Erinnich (Gæls of Erin). See CELTS.

Gælic Language and Literature. See CELTIC LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.

Gag-rules, a series of rules adopted 1836-44 by the House of Representatives, to prevent the reception of anti-slavery petitions and check the possibility of debate on the subject. No other measure created more virulent debate. The Constitution forbids Congress to pass any law "abridging the right of the peo