are collected from the forests and fields by experts who have learned to distinguish them from the poisonous ones, but by far the most commonly used species is the common mushroom (Agaricus campestris) which is cultivated by gardeners for this purpose. See MUSH

ROOMS.

Medicinal Fungi. - The most important species is the Ergot (Claviceps purpurea), one of the sac fungi, which is parasitic in the heads of rye.

Pathogenic Fungi (on Animals).-Many

bacteria are the direct cause of diseases of animals, including man. See BACTERIA.

Some of the water moulds cause a serious disease of fishes, especially of young fishes in "hatcheries. Occasionally an epidemic, known as the “Salmon Disease," has been known to occur in the streams of Great Britain. Investigation has shown it to be due to a certain species of water mould.

The insect fungi (Entomophthoracea) annually destroy immense numbers of flies, locusts, caterpillar larvæ, etc. The common house fly is attacked by Empusa musca in summer and autumn. Every infected insect fastens itself by means of its tongue to some object, and soon perishes miserably, its body walls being pierced by innumerable spore-bearing branches. In the autumn myriads of locusts ("grasshoppers”) are destroyed by Empusa grylli. When attacked by the fungus the locust climbs a grass or weed stem around which it finally clasps its legs and dies firmly attached. Many other insects, including mosquitoes, are destroyed by these beneficial fungi. Thus far all attempts to artificially apply these fungi in combating insects have been unsuccessful.

Pathogenic Fungi (on Plants). See DisEASES OF PLANTS.

CHARLES E. BESSEY, University of Nebraska.

Fungicides, fun'ji-sid, any agent used to prevent the growth of fungi or their spores. The most important uses of fungicides are in agriculture and horticulture for controlling the fungi that attack crops. These may be divided into two general classes: (1) Fungi which burrow among the tissues of the host plants and expose little more than their fruiting organs to the air. (2) Fungi which expose almost all of their vegetative parts to the air, only the holdfast, absorbing organs (haustoria) entering the tissues of the host. From the nature of their growth it is easily seen that members of the second group may be attacked at any time, but that since the vegetative parts of members of the first group are protected by the tissues of the host they cannot be reached effectively by any fungicide without injuring the host. Controlling agencies in such cases must therefore be preventive.

For the control of the exposed fungi the chief agent is sulphur in out-door practice, applied as a powder, which is dusted upon the foliage, preferably with a powder gun. In the greenhouse it is more frequently evaporated, by strewing powdered sulphur upon the heating pipes or upon burlap suspended in warm parts of the greenhouse. This is a slow way, and is mainly preventive. When a considerable quantity must be evaporated in a short time the sulphur is gently heated over an oil stove. It is imperative that the sulphur be kept from

igniting, because the fumes are destructive to host as well as fungus. For cleansing a greenhouse of objectionable fungi when the plants are out, the sulphur may be burned and all reachable parts sprayed liberally with Bordeaux mixture.

Various compounds of copper are used as preventives of the attacks of internal feeding fungi and as remedies for the exposed. Chief of these salts is copper sulphate, which may be applied in a pure solution only to dormant wood, walls, etc. It is used at the rate of one pound to the gallon, and will, at this strength, destroy lichens and algæ as well as fungi. For use upon foliage and other actively growing parts it must be mixed with some substance which will counteract its causticity. Lime is most frequently used, and the compound is called Bordeaux mixture from the French city where its usefulness was accidentally discovered about 1882. It is made as follows: A known number of pounds of copper sulphate are dissolved in an equal number of gallons of water, contained in a wooden tank or barrel, the salt being suspended at the surface of the water to ensure quick solution. In another receptacle a known number of pounds of lime, as free from magnesium as possible, are slaked with a little water, and when slaking is complete, enough more water is added to make the proportion one pound of lime to a gallon of water. When needed for use six gallons of the copper sulphate solution and four or five of the lime solution are separately diluted with enough water to make a combined total of 50 gallons. The two diluted solutions are then thoroughly mixed, and afterward tested with ferrocyanide of potash to make sure that there is no uncombined copper sulphate. A brownish discoloration indicates that more lime must be added to neutralize the free copper salt. The mixture is then ready for general use, but for peaches, plums, cherries, and some other plants, another 25 gallons of water must be added because of the susceptibility of the foliage to injury. The stock solution of copper may be kept for weeks, but the lime solution should stand for only a few days and the completed mixture for only a few hours, because the particles tend to flocculate and settle, a process which impairs the usefulness of the mixture.

Copper sulphate is often used as eau celeste, a solution of one pound of the salt to two gallons of water plus three half-pints of standard ammonia, and then diluted with water to make 25 gallons. Since the strength of the ammonia varies, this solution often burns the foliage, there being insufficient ammonia to neutralize the free copper sulphate. This fungicide and ammoniacal solution of copper carbonate are used when a non-staining solution is needed, as in spraying ornamental plants and fruit which is nearing maturity. The latter solution is made by dissolving one ounce of copper carbonate in one pint of ammonia and mixing with 10 gallons of water.

The seeds of various cereals are often dipped in hot water formalin solution and copper sulphate solution to destroy fungous spores, and hot water is also used to some extent for destroying exposed fungi, spores, etc.

All solutions must be applied as a mist-like spray, to ensure which a nozzle with a small aperture is essential. The first application to fruit trees should be before the buds begin to

swell. This may be a stronger solution than those used after growth starts. The second should be given when the buds begin to swell, the third when the blossoms have fallen. No spray should be given during the blossoming period.

Consult: Lodeman, 'The Spraying of Plants' (1890); Prillieu, Maladie des plantes agricoles) (1895); Massee, Text-book of Plant Diseases' (New York 1899); various bulletins of the United States Department of Agriculture and of many of the State Agricultural Experiment Stations.

Fungus, fun'gus. See FUNGI.

Fungus-eaters. The fungi enter largely into the food of the lower animals, and somewhat into the fare of the higher forms. The moulds, slimes, and various aquatic forms are devoured by echinoderms and mollusks, both bivalves and univalves, who take in the minute floating forms, or their spores, or eat the fixed growths from stones and other resting places, and by vegetable-eating fishes and crustacea. Pond-snails will keep the glass sides of an aquarium clean of vegetable growths, a large part of which is fungoid. Worms, slugs, and insects in great variety feed upon the vast array of fungi not aquatic. Beetles are especially fond of the larger forms- - the toadstools and treeborne polypores. A large Javan beetle, known from its shape as the "fiddle-beetle" (Mormolyce phylloides), spends its life within and about certain fungi growing on tree-trunks. A whole family of small flies (Mycetophilida) breed in fungi, including the cultivated mushroom, beds of which are often largely damaged by the work of their maggots bred there; hence the group is termed "fungus-gnats." In the United States the woodland toadstools are eagerly fed upon when ripe in August and September, not only by great numbers of insects, slugs and snails, but by salamanders, tortoises (especially), and by all sorts of squirrels; but they seem to be rarely if ever eaten by birds. For the edibility of fungi by man, see MUSHROOM.

Fungus-gnat. See FUNGUS-eaters; Gnats. Funk, funk, Isaac Kauffman, American publisher: b. Clifton, Ohio, 10 Sept. 1839. He was graduated at Wittenberg College, Ohio, and after several pastorates, the last of which was in Brooklyn, N. Y., began a publishing business in 1872; founded and published the Metropolitan Pulpit (now the 'Homiletic Review)) in 1876, and the Literary Digest' in 1890. He has published also the Standard Dictionary of which he was editor-in-chief (1890-4). He is an earnest Prohibitionist, and in 1884 founded the (Voice, a prohibition journal, and has been the Prohibition candidate for mayor of New York. In 1901 he began the publication of the important 'Jewish Encyclopedia.'

Funnel-marks, painted designs on the funnels of ocean steamships to designate the ownership of the vessel. American line steamships are thus designated by a black funnel, white band, with black top; Anchor line, black funnel; Cunard line, red funnel, with black rings and black top; French line, red funnel with black top; White Star line, cream funnel with black top; Wilson line, red with black top; North German Lloyd line, cream funnel; Red Star, black funnel, white band, black top; Netherlands line, black,

with white band and green borders; HamburgAmerican line, buff for express steamers, black for regular steamers; Scandinavian-American line, yellow, with white band and blue star, and black top; Bristol line, black, white band in centre, blue star in centre of white band.

Funston, Frederick, American military officer: b. New Carlisle, Ohio, 9 Nov. 1865. He was educated at the State University, Kansas, and was a commissioner of the Department of Agriculture to explore Alaska 1893-4. He served in the insurgent army in Cuba in 1896-7, and, receiving in 1898 a commission as colonel of the Twentieth Kansas Volunteers, went to the Philippines, where he became brigadier-general of volunteers the next year. In March 1901 he commanded an expedition which succeeded in capturing the Filipino leader, Aguinaldo, and was appointed brigadier-general in the United States army in the same month.

Fur-bearing Animals. In the broader sense any animal which yields a pelt used in the preparation of marketable furs. In a narrower, more zoological sense, the term is restricted to that family of carnivora, the Mustelide, which contains the weasels, martens, sables, badgers, skunks, wolverines, otters, and sea-otters. The family is not a large one, but is of great economic importance, and many of its genera and species are of very wide distribution, mostly in northern regions. Two groups, the Arctic sea-otter and the skunks, are exclusively American. All are small animals, fierce, and voracious, living in burrows, or holes in trees or rocks, and active in winter. They belong in the arctoid division of carnivores, are most nearly related on the one hand to the bears and on the other to the dogs. For further particulars see FUR-TRADE; and the names of prominent species, as: BADGER; FERRET; MARTEN OTTER; POLECAT; SABLE; SEAOTTER; SKUNK; WEASEL; WOLVERINE; etc. Consult: Elliott Coues, 'North American Mustelidæ (Washington 1877).

Fur Seal, the fur-bear or northern fur-seal (Otaria, or Callorhinus, ursina), whose pelts form the seal-skins of commerce. (See FUR TRADE.) There is also a southern fur-seal (0. nigresceus), dwelling along the southern coast of South America. See SEAL.

Fur Trade, The, is interwoven with the history of the French and English in Canada, and had an important influence upon the early history of New England, New York, and Virginia. Of all industries that of manufacturing the pelts of animals into articles for the use of mankind is the most ancient, and hardly a country exists in which, to some extent, the skins of different beasts are not so used at the present time. The manufacturing of skins into articles of apparel and luxury is an industry apart from all others, and one requiring great knowledge and experience, as the stability as well as the appearance of most furs depend much upon the mode of curing, drying, and making up.

The rich peltries of North America were the magnet, holding forth the promise of commercial gain, that drew hitherward the pioneers and precursors of civilization. But for the hardy and adventurous Frenchman and Briton who early sought fortune in the traffic in furs, the settlement and advancement of the country would