FUEL save in regions where an abundant supply of peat could be had; but it has now been almost altogether displaced by coal, save in remote country districts, where the use of wood is still general. For detailed information concerning the various fuels mentioned above, the separate articles in this encyclopedia relating to them should be consulted. (See, for example, COAL; GAS; PEAT; PETROLEUM; WOOD; etc.) In the present article the subject will be discussed only in its general aspects. In selecting a fuel, the main points to be considered are: (1) its cost; (2) the quantity of heat that is developed by its combustion; and (3) the mechanical problems that are involved in its use. The cost of a fuel varies greatly, according to the location of the point of consumption with respect to the point of production; and it often happens that a fuel that is economical in one part of the world is too expensive for serious consideration in some other part. An illustration of this fact has already been given in the case of wood, and the same principle applies with equal force to many other fuels. Petroleum, for example, is too expensive to compete extensively with coal in most parts of the world, and yet in certain regions the case is exactly reversed, and petroleum is far the cheaper of the two. Coal was practically the only fuel in extensive use in Texas, for example, until the recent discoveries of petroleum were made in that region. Since that time, however, petroleum has proved itself a formidable rival of coal throughout the southwestern part of the United States. Much of the Russian coal is of an inferior quality, and upon the Russian railways, and on the Black and Caspian seas, petroleum fuel is now used in large quantities. The oil that is most commonly burned in these regions is known as "petroleum refuse," and is the residuum that remains behind in the retorts, after the lighter parts of the Baku oil have been distilled off as naphtha, gasoline, kerosene, etc. In the United States the distillation of petroleum has been so far elaborated and perfected, in the effort to obtain every product that would have a marketable value, that there is comparatively little "refuse oil" available for fuel purposes; and where petroleum is used as fuel in this country, it is usually in the form of the crude oil, as it comes from the well. The total production of petroleum, in the United States, is altogether inadequate to the needs of the country in the way of fuel, and it has been estimated that the Pennsylvania Railroad would alone consume more than the entire supply, if it were to adopt petroleum to the exclusion of coal. It is therefore evident that petroleum can never replace coal to any considerable extent, however convenient and economical it may be in special cases. The heating value of a fuel is most accurately determined by the actual combustion of a sample of the fuel, and the experimental determination of the quantity of heat that this sample yields. An approximate estimate may be had, however, by means of a formula that will be presently given. In the direct determination of the heating value of a solid fuel like coal, a weighed quantity of the fuel is placed in a closed vessel called a calorimeter, which is surrounded by a known quantity of water. The details of the experi ment vary to a considerable extent in different forms of calorimeter, but the central idea is to burn the fuel in pure oxygen gas, and determine the quantity of heat given off by observing the increase in the temperature of the water by which the calorimeter is surrounded. In some forms of the instrument the sample is burned in a stream of oxygen gas, the products of the combustion being preserved for subsequent analysis. In other forms, the combustion is effected in the presence of a fixed quantity of compressed oxygen, the vessel in which it takes place being hermetically sealed, so as to retain all the products of combustion within itself. In practically all cases the fuel is ignited, when the apparatus is in readiness, by means of a platinum wire, which is placed in contact with the sample, and heated white-hot by means of an electric current. In making a test of this kind, the sample of fuel is finely pulverized in a mortar, and the quantity used varies from I to 20 grains, smaller quantities being used, naturally, in the sealed calorimeters than in those in which a free current of oxygen is provided. In calorimetric work great attention must be paid to small details of manipulation, and reliable results cannot be had without a considerable amount of training and experience. The results of such tests are usually expressed, in England and the United States, by giving the number of pounds of water whose temperature would be raised by 1° F., through the complete combustion of one pound of the fuel, if the heat that is developed were all absorbed by the water. The quantity of heat that is required to raise the temperature of one pound of water by 1° F. is commonly taken as the unit of heat in work of this kind, and is known as the "British thermal unit" (abbreviated to "B. T. U."). It is often called merely a "heat unit" (abbreviated to "H. U.”), but this practice is not to be commended, since it is quite likely to lead to confusion with the French, or metric heat unit. which is known as the "calorie," and is defined as the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water by 1° C. (The calorie is equal to 3.968 British thermal units.) The percentage of incombustible matter in coal varies greatly, some specimens of Pennsylvania anthracite containing as little as 2.24 per cent (Carpenter), while in certain other kinds of coal, from other localities, the proportion of ash occasionally is as high as 25 or 30 per cent. If the weight of the ash is deducted from the total weight of the coal, and the residue is called the "combustible," good Pennsylvania anthracite or bituminous coal may be expected to develop about 14,000 B. T. U. per pound of combustible, and substantially the same figure may also be given for coke. Peat develops from 6,000 to 10,000 B. T. U. per pound, but peat invariably contains a considerable amount of moisture, and a very sensible part of the heat of combustion is absorbed in evaporating this, with a corresponding reduction in the quantity of heat that is available for useful purposes. Soft wood is said to yield more heat than hard wood, ash, beech, birch, elm, and oak averaging about 8,500 B. T. U. per pound of wood, while pine yields about 9.000 B. T. U. The various petroleum oils differ considerably in composition, and hence also in the quantity of heat that is developed upon combustion. As a general average, FUERO-FUGGER it may be said that one pound of petroleum yields about 19,000 B. T. U. Natural gas also varies in composition and in fuel value, but American gas of average quality may be expected to yield about 1,000 B. T. U. per cubic foot. For other data of this sort, and for full information concerning the general subject of fuels and practical calorimetry, consult: Herman Poole, The Calorific Power of Fuels.' See also Kent. The Mechanical Engineer's PocketBook.' When it is not convenient to make a direct calorimetric test of a fuel, an approximate estimate of its heating power may be had by calculation from some one of the numerous formulæ that have been proposed for this purpose, Provided the chemical composition of the fuel s known. Dulong's formula is perhaps the best known, but Mahler's is simpler, and appears to five even better results. If C is the weight of Carbon present in the fuel, and H is the weight of hydrogen, each being expressed as a decimal fraction of the total weight of the fuel, then (according to Mahler's simplified formula) the combustion of one pound of the fuel will generate (20050C +67500H-5400) B. T. U. This formula works well with various coals, and it also gives fairly good results when applied to wood and to oils. The mechanical questions that have to be considered in connection with the use of a proposed fuel can only receive brief illustrative treatment in the present article. It often happens, for example, that a considerable supply of vegetable matter is at hand, which is theoretically a possible fuel, but which cannot be utilized in practice until certain serious difficulties can be overcome. Sawdust is an example of this kind. It is often embarrassingly abundant about saw-mills, but it is almost invariably damp, and it mats together so compactly that o chimney will provide sufficient draft to draw hrough it the air that is necessary for comSustion. This difficulty has been overcome, in practice, by the construction of special furnaces the air required for combustion is In which drawn over the top of the sawdust, which is thereby caused to burn from the top downward; the mass being turned over at frequent intervals, The so that fresh surfaces may be exposed. exhausted cane, of the southern bagasse, or States, is also burned with success by similar As a final example of the overcoming methods. of mechanical difficulties in the way of using a fuel, the pulverization of coal may be cited. In the mining of anthracite coal, a certain proportion of the product is unavoidably broken too fine for use upon ordinary grates. Special grates of various kinds have been tried, with varying degrees of success, in the effort to render this fine product available for the production of steam. Recently the attempt has been made to make use of it by pulverizing it Still further, until it is in fact reduced to the almost impalpable powder; the form of an powder so obtained being blown into the furnace in the form of a spray of dust, together with the precise quantity of air requisite to ensure perfect combustion. The use of such finely pulverized fuel appears to be destined to increase; the main difficulties that are now in the way being the expense of the pulverization, and the danger of storing any considerable quantity of a combustible that is so finely sub divided that it may be regarded almost as an explosive, so far as danger from fire is concerned. Fuero (from the Latin forum), a Spanish word signifying jurisdiction, law, privilege. It is applied to the various written codes and characters of particular districts, towns, etc., and signifies generally those laws, privileges, and immunities founded on usage and sanctioned by the suzerain or supreme authority. Fueros are both civil and ecclesiastical. The earliest, as well as the most universal, is the fuero juzgo. This name (a corruption of the Latin forum judicum) is given to a 13th century translation Gothic laws which, up till this time, gradually of a code of the 17th century. It contains the superseded the Roman. Each law receives the name of the Gothic sovereign by whom it was promulgated. This code has formed the fountimes. The fueros of Leon, known by the name dation of Spanish law down even to modern of fueros bonos, contain a complete constitution, civil and ecclesiastical, recognize the rights of self-taxation, and of the nobility of all subjects by birth. The constitution of free towns under these fueros is essentially republican, the king having only a right to name the corregidor, who must be confirmed by the junta of the province, As the various monarchies became consolidated an assembly elected by a very liberal suffrage. under a single head, the kings became anxious to evade or withdraw privileges which interfered with the organization of their kingdom, and after 1592 when Philip II. entered Aragon with an army hanged the grand-justiciary, whose office it was to administer the oath, and abolished the constitution, the fueros as a political institution ceased to exist, although some local and municipal privileges continued to be called by that name. In 1833 a civil war broke out in the Basque provinces, in assertion of the fueros, which were formally recognized in 1844. In 1876, however, the fueros of these northern provinces were superseded by the general laws of the kingdom. Fuerte Ventura, fwar'-tä věn-too'rä, one of the Canary Islands, belonging to Spain. It has an area of 650 square miles and numerous extinct volcanoes. Its principal harbor is Cabras on the east coast. Pop. (1900) 11,662. and sanitary engineer: b. Ponce, Porto Rico, 10 Fuertes, James Hillhouse, American civil Aug. 1863. He was graduated from Cornell University in 1883. He has constructed works for the sewerage, drainage and water supply of various cities in the United States, Canada and Brazil, and is a non-resident lecturer at Cornell. He has published Water and Public Health' (1897) Fuertes, Louis Agassiz, American painter of birds: b. Ithaca, N. Y., 7 Feb. 1874. He was graduated from Cornell University in 1897. He has illustrated: 'Birding on a Broncho (1896); 'Citizen Bird' (1897); Song Birds and Water Fowl' (1897), and other books. Fugger, fook'er or füg'ger, the name of a wealthy and illustrious German family of Suabia, descended from a weaver, who originally lived in the environs of Augsburg, about 1300. They were at first successful in selling clothes, but afterward extended their dealings, and became FUGIO - FUGITIVE-SLAVE LAWS merchants, accumulating an immense fortune. Reaching the height of their affluence at the commencement of the 16th century, they rendered considerable services to the Emperors Charles V. and Maximilian, by making them large advances. These princes bestowed titles of nobility on the Fugger family, and they soon became connected with the best blood of Germany. Promoted to the highest dignities of the empire, they did not any the more neglect the pursuits of commerce. Their riches were always forthcoming for the improvement of their birthplace, Augsburg, where they erected some handsome monuments and founded philanthropical institutions. The best known of them are the three brothers, Ulric, James, and George; and afterward Raymond and Antony, both sons of George. Ulric received for his loans to Maximilian the courtship of Kirchberg, and the seigniory of Weissenhorn, which afterward remained in the possession of his family. He was a great encourager of learning. Antony and Raymond bore, to a great extent, the expenses of the expedition of Charles V. against Algeria, obtaining from him the permission to coin money. One day, at an interview with the emperor, Antony, as a mark of his regard and esteem, threw into the fire all the title-deeds and securities which Charles had deposited with him. Toward the close of the 18th century the family withdrew altogether from trade, confining themselves to the management of their landed estates. Count Anselm Maria of Babenhausen, of the Wellenberg line (b. 1776; d. 1821), was raised by the Emperor Francis II. to the dignity of a prince of the empire. The principality of Babenhausen was annexed to Bavaria in 1806, and Leopold Fugger Babenhausen (1827-85), grandson of the first prince, was a hereditary imperial councilor, and lord high-chancelor of Bavaria. He was succeeded by his brother Karl Ludwig Maria Fugger (b. 1829), who in 1891-3 was president of the Bavarian Reichsrat. Fugio. See CENT. Fugitive, in law, is a term applied to persons who having violated the laws of a State escape into a foreign territory. As one State cannot pursue criminals into the territories of another, the practice prevails among the more enlightened nations of mutually surrendering such fugitives to the justice of the injured State, This practice is founded on national comity and convenience, or on express compact. The United States recognize the obligation only when it is created by express agreement (see ExTRADITION). As between the States of the American Union, extradition is made compulsory by the Federal Constitution, Art. IV. Sec. 2, which provides that "a person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall fly from justice and be found in another State, shall, on demand of the executive authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of the crime." In the several States there are statutory provisions or established usages regulating the procedure in such cases. Fugitive-slave Laws. In the colonies and under the Confederation, fugitive slaves could only be reclaimed through intercolonial or interstate comity, and in framing the Constitution, one of the chief inducements for the South to join was a fugitive-slave clause. The mandate to deliver them up, however, was only to the States which could not be punished for refusing to comply; and as the free States recognized no obligation of comity on this point, the general government passed the first fugitive-slave law, signed by Washington 12 Feb. 1793. The oral testimony of the alleged owner was all the evidence required, and on this any magistrate, even a town justice, was ordered to surrender the alleged fugitive; $500 fine was imposed for rescue, concealment, or obstruction of arrest. This made kidnapping free blacks a pastime, and it was extensively carried on in the Border States; motions to amend the law and require more evidence were voted down. On the other hand, the Border States complained of increasing escapes, and Congress promptly passed an amendment (30 Jan. 1818), enabling a claimant to make his proof before a judge of his own State, and abolishing the habeas corpus in such cases. The Northern magistrates, however, revolted against the obligation; Pennsylvania passed a law contravening the national act and providing its own methods of reclamation, and made them incumbent on her own magistrates; a Maryland slave-seeker thereupon carried off an alleged slave by force, and on his indictment the Supreme Court decided (Prigg v. Pennsylvania) that the execution of Federal laws could not be imposed on State officials. Taney dissented; and on this doubt the Northern States began to pass "personal-liberty laws" to prevent their officials being so employed, or their buildings used as places of detention. This roused the South to demand an effective fugitive-slave law as the price of remaining in the Union; and that of 1850 (see COMPROMISE OF 1850), the death-knell of the Northern-Southern Whig party, was passed, placing the whole course of reclamation in Federal hands. The entire machinery of the United States, from courts to army, was made part of a grand system for this one purpose, and new officials were appointed for it; marshals were liable to $1,000 fine, plus the value of the slave, if he escaped or even was forcibly rescued, and bystanders were held guilty of treason for refusing to assist; the owner's oath was full evidence, that of the alleged fugitive was not to be received, and the habeas corpus was rendered null; obstruction, rescue, or concealment, were punishable by six months' imprisonment and $2,000 damages and fine; if the claimant "apprehended" a rescue, the marshal himself before surrendering him; lastly, an affiwas to take the fugitive to the claimant's State davit and general description made in the claimant's own State was to be valid for a reclamation in any other. This atrocious act was met by it hard for the alleged owner or his United more stringent personal-liberty laws, which made States agents to find any State soil to stand on in executing the writs or holding the fugitive; and in 1859 Wisconsin openly threatened to secede if the mandates were executed on her soil. Its political result was an undreamt-of boomerang, each seizure rousing a glare of public notice and hatred, often inflamed still more by the incidents as riot and bloodshed, the murder of her child by a mother to save it from slavery (see GARNER CASE), the prosecution for treason of two Quakers who refused to join the hunt (see CHRISTIANA CASE), the seizure of long-time free black citizens of towns, etc. The |