PART II

THE ENDS OF COMPOSITION

CHAPTER VII

EXPOSITION

The Forms of Discourse. So far we have been studying the means and methods of expressing ourselves. We have to do now with the ends, and the effects of expression. Indications have not been lacking all along the way, that there are different types of expression resulting from the different subject matter and different purposes of writing. Generally speaking, there are, indeed, four forms of discourse, each one of which is generic and contains lesser specific forms under it. We shall define and illustrate the four here, and reserve the subdivisions until we come to the special treatment of each:

Exposition is explaining something completely and clearly.

It deals with processes, theories, character, circumstances, anything that needs to be explained. Argument is the attempt to persuade another mind of the truth of a given proposition. Exposition is often used as a part of Argument.

Narration is the account of what has happened, and therefore deals with incidents.

Description is picturing or suggesting by words some scene, object, person, or effect.

Whichever of these types our subject may belong to, we can always best surround it, collect our material for it, by apply

ing to it our original quintet of questions. The proportions, in our answers to these, may differ widely; some of the questions may be omitted altogether; but no necessary material will be forgotten if we begin by searching the field with them.

Their Relation. It must not be assumed that any one of these four types may be set off by a hard and fast division from the rest. On the contrary, this is seldom the case. They are always being mingled by writers. In every story or narration, description and explanation are necessary; in many good descriptions or explanations or arguments there occurs a sprinkling of one or more of the other forms. But in all expression one of these types predominates, the others are subsidiary; and it is the predominant one which determines the classification of any particular piece of writing. In Uncle Tom's Cabin, for instance, we have enjoyed a good narration. But we have also read in this story interesting descriptions, informing expositions, and we know the whole to be a strong argument against slavery. All four types are here in combination, but Narration predominates. Again, a lawyer, who is concerned chiefly with argument in a damage case (let us say that he is trying it before a jury), may with telling effect describe the old lady who was run over, explain the carelessness of the motorman, or narrate the harrowing story of it all. He needs all these types of composition to strengthen his total argument.

The

The Title as a Guide. As a rule, of course, our title should indicate which of these four forms of discourse is used beneath it. But this cannot always be the case. title needs always to be limited by some definite purpose. "Uncle Tom's Cabin " sounds, for instance, like a descriptive title; yet it is used as the title for a narration, the purpose of which is to persuade people that slavery is wrong. Thus,

in "The Accident," it may be our purpose to tell a good story, or to explain how it occurred, or to describe the scene, or to argue against carelessness. Hence, our title may be used for any one of the four types. It is always better, however, to add modifying words intended to indicate as closely as possible which form is going to be used. "How the Accident Happened" would be better for Exposition; "The Scene of the Accident" for Description; "Resolved: That accidents due to carelessness should be made punishable," for Argument.

EXERCISES

I. Classify the following passages according as Exposition, Argument, Narration, or Description predominates. Show by short excerpts from each that more than one type is to be found there. Give each an appropriate title:

1. It happened one day about noon, going towards my boat, I was exceedingly surprised with the print of a man's naked foot on the shore, which was very plain to be seen in the sand. I stood like one thunderstruck, or as if I had seen an apparition; I listened, I looked round me, I could hear nothing, nor see anything; I went up to a rising ground to look farther, I went up the shore and down the shore, but it was all one, could see no other impression but that one. I went to it again to see if there were any more, and to observe if it might not be my fancy; but there was no room for that, for there was exactly the very print of a foot, toes, heel, and every part of a foot; how it came thither, I knew not, nor could in the least imagine. But after innumerable fluttering thoughts, like a man perfectly confused and out of myself, I came home to my fortification, not feeling, as we say, the ground I went on, but terrified to the last degree, looking behind me at every two or three steps, mistaking every bush and tree, and fancying every stump at a distance to be a man; nor is it possible to describe how many various shapes affrighted imagination represented things to me in, how many wild ideas were found every moment in my fancy, and what

strange unaccountable whimsies came into my thoughts by the ROBINSON CRUSOE.

way.

2.

Duke S.

Now, my co-mates and brothers in exile,
Hath not old custom made this life more sweet

Than that of painted pomp? Are not these woods

More free from peril than the envious court?
Here feel we but the penalty of Adam,
The seasons' difference; as the icy fang,
And churlish chiding of the winter's wind,
Which, when it bites and blows upon my body,
Even till I shrink with cold, I smile and say
"This is no flattery: these are counselors
That feelingly persuade me what I am."
Sweet are the uses of adversity;
Which, like the toad, ugly and venomous,

Wears yet a precious jewel in his head:

And this our life exempt from public haunt

Finds tongues in trees, books in the running brooks,
Sermons in stones and good in everything.

I would not change it. As You Like It.

3. There was a man of nice conscience, who bore a blood stain in his heart - the death of a fellow-creature · which, for his more exquisite torture, had chanced with such a peculiarity of circumstances, that he could not absolutely determine whether his will had entered into the deed or not. Therefore, his whole life was spent in the agony of an inward trial for murder, with a continual sifting of the details of his terrible calamity, until his mind had no longer any thought, nor his soul any emotion, disconnected with it. There was a mother, too but a desolation now who, many years before, had gone out on a pleasure party, and, returning, found her infant smothered in its little bed. And ever since she has been tortured with the fantasy that her buried baby lay smothering in its coffin. Then there was an aged lady, who had lived from time immemorial with a constant tremor quivering through her frame. It was terrible to discern her dark shadow tremulous upon the wall;