And again :—“ In the hospitals of Icaria there are neither poor patients nor mercenary nurses and attendants, but only citizens who nurse the sick like their own children, and patients who see around themselves but brothers and sisters."

Sir Thomas More says:-"In Utopia, every child is nursed by its own mother, if death or sickness does not intervene, and in that case a nurse is quickly found; which is no hard matter, for anyone that can do it offers herself cheerfully; for, as they are much inclined to do that piece of mercy, so the child whom they nurse considers the nurse as its mother."

In the following passages, the action and influence of charitable labour is extended to its widest application, and is well worth the attention of all moralists, religionists, and philanthropists.

Sir Thomas More says:-"After having laid up stores, the Utopians order an exportation of the overplus of their produce to other nations. They order a seventh part of all these goods to be freely given to the poor of the countries to which they send them, and sell the rest at moderate rates; and by this exchange they not only bring back those few things that they need at home, but likewise a great deal of gold and silver, which they lay up as a treasure.”

Cabet says, in Voyage en Icarie:-"The irresistible power of education convinces all that their whole being, even birth and death, must be consecrated to the welfare of one's fellow creatures. The phenomena of birth will afford instruction to midwifery; the awful drama of death will impart edification; and the body after death being dissected, will serve to give useful information to doctors and surgeons.'

Of defensive labour, Cabet says that it is shared by all :"The police are nowhere so numerous as in the state of Icaria; for not only are all public functionaries bound to maintain the peace of the country, but besides these all citizens consider it to be their duty to protect their mutual security from wanton attacks."

On defensive labour, Babeuf makes a very sensible observation, saying:-" In a communistic state the military chiefs are only appointed for a time by the people. The perpetuity of military grades in modern armies is a great scourge to public liberty. Officers, formerly good citizens, seeing themselves

placed for life above the common soldier, insensibly separate their interests from those of the people. In the glorious days of ancient Rome, had they commanders for life? Was it not with armies of peasants and shepherds that the Swiss, the Dutch, and the Americans, repelled the troops of their oppressors, though disciplined, fashioned, and blind to obedience, and commanded by professional officers?"

On educational labour, R. Owen has an important remark strikingly coinciding with the contents of chapter xxxvi. He says:"During the years devoted to the production of wealth, there will be ample time for practising the most useful form of education, that of instructing others (in the production of wealth).

On the labour needed in conveyance and locomotion, Babeuf says "The members of the national community are called upon in rotation to perform, conduct, and superintend the transport of commodities."

That there are neither idlers nor domestic servants amongst the Icarians will be seen from the following dialogue which occurs in Cabet's Voyage en Icarie:

"Well, my lord, since you have come amongst us in order to gather information, we shall show you many more interesting things; but we can show you neither idlers nor domestics.' "You have no servants?'

"Nobody has any; our great reformer has delivered us from this plague.'"

The custom of employing indoor men-servants, which seems to be an exclusive feature of English luxury, is even condemned by opponents of Communism, amongst them by Sargant, who says:-"If the great reformers, whose heads are always in the clouds, would address themselves to persuading people of the advantage that would follow from the abolition of indoor menservants, they might effect some good."

THI

CHAPTER XXIX.-AGRICULTURE.

HE principles regulating the agricultural arrangements of the future have been stated to be :

1. That the enjoyment of country life combined with agricultural labour shall, in turn, be made accessible to all.

2. That cultivation on a large scale, and on large fields, shall be undertaken by the state.

3. That cultivation on a small scale, consisting chiefly of spade husbandry and gardening, shall take place at the side of national farming.

4. That all grown-up children shall contribute a share to agricultural labour.

5. That with each farm homestead be combined industrial, artistic, and scientific appliances.

We are informed by Sir Thomas More that all the inhabitants of Utopia take part in agricultural labour in alternate shifts and relays, and are thus frequently placed under the joyful and healthy influence of country life. He says:-"The Utopians have built all over the country, farm-houses for husbandmen, which are well contrived and furnished with all things necessary for country labour. Inhabitants are sent by turns from the cities to dwell in them.

"Every year twenty of an agricultural family of forty come back to the town after they have stayed two years in the country; and in their room there are other twenty sent from the town, that they may learn country work from those that have been already one year in the country, as they must teach those that come to them the next from town."

Of the result of this general participation in agricultural labour, Sir Thomas More, says :-

"Agriculture is that which is so universally known among the Utopians, that no person, either man or woman, is ignorant of it."

Cabet mentions a similar result to have been attained in Icaria, saying:-"Every adult Icarian can when needed be called to all kinds of agricultural labour; for the work of the husbandman having been considered as a most indispensable element in the sustenance of the people, every Icarian has

been taught and practised in it from his early youth to the time of adolescence."

Rendering the enjoyment of country life accessible to all, is, however, only partially realized in Icaria, for Cabet says:"At the age of eighteen, the sons and daughters of farmers who choose a profession or handicraft are sent to town, and those of the town people who choose agriculture for their occupation are sent into the country; but, generally, the children of agriculturists prefer remaining in the country."

Babeuf thinks that the sight of beautiful country scenery will strengthen the love for one's own native land. He therefore advises a general sharing, and also by turns, of all agricultural labour, including conveyance not only of agricultural produce, but also for other purposes, in order that every man shall have frequent opportunity to traverse his own native country, see its beautiful landscapes, lakes, rivers, mountains and antiquities. "Migratory agricultural labour will also be a happy occasion for strengthening the love of country, by bringing home to every individual the knowledge of its beauty; thus every citizen capable of work should be called in turn to this function, as also to that of couriers, bearers of dispatches, messages, etc., etc."

That in Utopia farming operations are sometimes performed on a large scale, and by a large number of people, and that by this means the speediest termination of work is obtained, we learn from Sir Thomas More, who says:-" When the time of harvest comes in Utopia, the magistrates in the country send to those in the towns and let them know how many hands they will need for reaping the harvest; and the number they call for being sent, they commonly dispatch it all in one day."

Cabet likewise states that the Icarians perform labour in united numbers, with the same result as to expedition, saying:-" In Icaria the country people often work in large gangs for a common purpose, as, for instance, in the construction of roads, when a large number of persons, directed by a superintendent, make a long extent of road in a few days."

The advantages of common and national cultivation, which evidently admits the application of machinery to the utmost extent, are admirably described by Cabet, who says:

"By national or common cultivation the fields can be laid out in large squares and sizes, which will especially facilitate the operation of the steam-plough and other mechanical appliances."

The national cultivation of the land will also allow of all space now occupied by enclosures, walls, and barren hedges, being economized and made fruitful."

"In Icaria every agricultural district has its congenial mode of cultivation. Different soils require different branches of agriculture; thus the culture of the vine, of grass, of grain, of fruit is everywhere undertaken in such places and districts as are best suited for them."

Thus in some places vineyards will abound, in others orchards. One district will be chiefly covered with woodlands, whilst another is laid out as grassland, and again another exclusively for growing cereals.

Human labour being to a great extent supplanted by machinery, the occupation of husbandry in Icaria is reduced to a simple intelligent direction and enlightened arrangement of what is to be done, and when it is to be done. The proportion to which mere drudgery work, such as ploughing, sawing, reaping, mowing, etc., has been reduced by the use of laboursaving machinery and implements may be guessed from the fact that now the labour of only one man is required where formerly fifteen were wanted."

Louis Blanc likewise gives his assent to common and national cultivation, saying:-"Farming Farming on a large scale must hereafter absorb the minute cultivation now prevailing in nearly all European countries."

Robert Owen projected the cultivation of the land by people living in agricultural villages, containing from 800 to 1,200 inhabitants of 200 to 300 families, dwelling in separate apartments, but under one roof; eating in common, their children being educated in common, and each one working for the common benefit."

In proposing these villages, Owen intended them to be selfsupporting, and they, therefore, contain a large number of inhabitants. That isolated communities can have no existence in a communistic state, has been shown in a preceding chapter; but R. Owen is quite right in proposing the living in common