That fraternity, or universal brotherhood, is something additional to the principle of equality, or the realization of justice, has been accurately perceived by J. S. Mill, who says: "We are entering into an order of things in which justice will again be the primary virtue; grounded as before on equal, but now also on sympathetic association; having its root no longer in the instinct of equals for self-protection, but in a cultivated sympathy between them; and no one being now left out, but an equal measure being extended to all."

The development of sympathetic association and the cultivation of a highly refined sentiment of sociability, will be greatly favoured by the communistic institution of the Associated Home, by the participation of the people in common meals, and by the performance of labour by large bodies of men. Stuart Mill speaks with great confidence of the future growth of this sentiment, saying:-"The social feelings of mankind, or the desire to be in unity with our fellow creatures, is already a powerful principle in human nature, and happily one of those which tend to become stronger without express inculcation from the influences of advancing civilization." Of the bearing of education on the inculcation of brotherly love to our fellow creatures, Stuart Mill says:-"By the improvement of education, the feeling of unity with our fellowcreatures will become (what it cannot be doubted that Christ intended it to be) as deeply rooted in our character, and to our own consciousness as completely a part of our nature, as the horror of crime is in an ordinarily well brought up young person." He therefore expects that "a direct impulse to promote the general good may be in every individual one of the habitual motives of action, and the sentiments connected therewith may fill a large and prominent place in every human being." He further takes the following elevated views of the nature and growth of brotherly love and sociability :"The social state is at once so natural, so necessary, and so habitual to man, that he never conceives himself otherwise than as a member of a social body; and this association is rivetted more and more as mankind are further removed from the state of savage independence. A person in whom the social feeling is at all developed, cannot bring himself to think of the rest of his fellow creatures as struggling rivals with

him for the means of happiness, whom he must desire to see defeated in their object, in order that he may succeed in his. The deeply rooted conception which every individual even now has of himself as a social being, tends to make him feel it one of his natural wants that there should be harmony between his feelings and aims and those of his fellowcreatures. . . . Not only does all strengthening of social ties and all healthy growth of society give to each individual a stronger personal interest in practically consulting the welfare of others; it also leads him to identify his feelings more and more with their good, or at least with an even greater degree of practical consideration for it. He comes as though instinctively to be conscious of himself as a being who of course pays regard to others. The good of others becomes to him a thing naturally and necessarily to be attended to, like any of the physical conditions of our existence."

"If we now suppose this feeling of unity to be taught as a religion, and the whole force of education, of institutions, and of opinion directed, as it once was in the case of religion, to make every person grow up from infancy surrounded on all sides both by the profession and by the practice of it, I think that no one who can realize this conception will feel any misgiving about the sufficiency of the ultimate sanction for the happiness of morality."

It has already been partially admitted that brotherly love towards all men must show itself by an unconditional willingness and desire to serve, to assist, and to help others. Men must devote themselves to the service of humanity, present and future. That this service can consist in nothing else but the promotion of true happiness we already learn from Plato, who says: "It is not the lawgiver's concern, how any one class in a state may be made especially happy, but to contrive rather that happiness shall be generated throughout the state, uniting the citizens both by persuasion and compulsion, making them share each other's services." Sir Thomas More says:"To do a great deal of good to mankind is the chief design that every good man ought to propose to himself in living.” What this good is, and how it is to be promoted, we learn from Mr. Mill in the following and subsequent passages:-" Happiness is the sole end of human action, for human nature is so

constituted as to desire nothing which is not either a part of happiness or a means of happiness.

The promotion of the greatest amount of happiness to the greatest possible number becomes, therefore, the only legitimate and reasonable aim of morality. This doctrine, which forms the basis of Mr. Mill's celebrated utilitarianism, has been called an epicurean theory by his opponents, and its advocates, as Mr. Stephen sarcastically puts it, might say at the last judgment:-"I pleased myself and hurt nobody else." These opponents have scarcely attentively read, or seriously studied, Mr. Mill's treatise on utilitarianism, for he distinctly describes the nature and extent of the happiness to be promoted, saying:-"There is no known epicurean theory of life which does not assign to the pleasures of the intellect, of the feelings and imagination, and of the moral sentiments, a much higher value as pleasures than to those of mere sensation."

"Utilitarian writers have placed the superiority of mental over bodily pleasure chiefly in the greater permanency, safety, uncostliness, etc., of the former."

"Human beings have faculties more elevated than the animal appetites, and when once made conscious of them, do not regard anything as happiness which does not include their gratification."

In order to illustrate still more fully Mr. Mill's conception of the true nature of happiness, we requote the following celebrated passage, partly given on page 311, in support of equality in the claims to happiness :

"The utilitarian standard . . . is not the agent's own happiness, but the greatest amount of happiness altogether. In the golden rule of Jesus of Nazareth, we read the complete spirit of the ethics of utility. To do as one would be done by, and to love one's neighbour as oneself, constitute the ideal perfection of utilitarian morality. The greatest happiness principle is a mere form of words, without rational signification, unless one person's happiness, supposed equal in degree, is counted for exactly as much as another's. Those conditions being supplied, Bentham's dictum, "Everybody to count for one, nobody for more than one," might be written under the principle of utility, as an explanatory

commentary. The equal claim of everybody to happiness involves an equal claim to all the means of happiness."

"I regard utility as the ultimate appeal on all ethical questions; but it must be utility in the largest sense grounded on the permanent interests of a man as a progressive being."

"The only self-renunciation which utilitarians applaud is devotion to the happiness, or to some of the means of happiness, of others; either of mankind collectively, or of individuals within the limits required by the collective interest of mankind."-H. PAUL.

Of Monsieur Le Comte's system of the service to humanity, Stuart Mill says:-" Monsieur le Comte has superabundantly shown the possibility of giving to the service of humanity, even without the aid of belief in a Providence, both the physical power and the social efficacy of a religion; making it take hold of human life, and colour all thought, feeling, and action, in a manner of which the greatest ascendancy ever exercised by any religion may be but a type and foretaste."

What Le Comte calls Altruism, or to live for others, was already initiated by Saint Simon's doctrine which creates labour a religious duty. Stuart Mill's utilitarianism is a further, more comprehensive, and more philosophical elaboration of the same idea. He unquestionably deserves the gratitude of mankind for having indicated the practical way of carrying out Christ's commandment, "Love ye one another," and of realizing universal brotherhood upon earth, and introducing that state of society which forms the last of the three democratic mottoes: Liberty, Equality, Fraternity.

SECTION VII.

PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF THE PRINCIPLE OF
EQUALITY.

CHAPTER XXVII.—OF THE COMMUNITY OF Goods.

"The realization of the doctrine of equality and fraternity necessitates the institution of common property."-BABEUF.

THAT

HAT Communism in its sublimest conception may one day become a reality, Robert Owen tells us in these words:"The time will surely come when the populations of the earth will be governed solely under the influence of universal love and charity; and Divine as these principles are, they are yet the principles of common sense for governing mankind."

Montesquieu advises the community of goods for small states, saying: "Those who wish to establish the community of goods must imitate the organization of Plato's republican model city, in which trade and commerce are carried on by the state without the intervention of private citizens, in which arts flourish, but not luxury, and where our wants will be satisfied, but not our desires; where money is proscribed, with its corrupting influences. Republics after Plato's model are fitted for small states where education can be given to all, and where the exchange of commodities can be rapidly effected without money. They are scarcely practicable in large states." Montesquieu could not foresee the rapidity of the exchange of ideas and commodities which is now effected by telegraphs, steam navigation, and railroads.

Plato says of the members of his Model Republic :-" Let none possess any private property unless it be absolutely necessary; next, let none have any dwelling or storehouse